
Class Ji£aXV\ 



Book 



GofyrightN 



COPYRIGHT PEPOSfT. 



9 &W&. 



Eastman's 
English Grammar 



Practical Grammar 

for 

Schools and Colleges 



By H. P. EASTMAN, A. M. 



DENNIS PRINTING COMPANY 

Greenville, Texas 



?o 



i 

JAN |6 1905 

jU~-2 6, /qo5~ 
Cls \Xc. No: 

COPY B. 



fat 



Copyrighted A. D. 1004 
By H. P. Eastmax, AM. 



Preface. 



It has been the object of the author of this gram- 
mar to supply the teaching public w ith a text-book that 
is easy to teach, easy to learn, and easy to retain. 

That it may be easy to teach, every subject is 
arranged in natural order, and treated in terms most 
commonly understood by teachers. Many teachers 
complain, and justly too, we think, that for years the 
texts on English gramma)' have been so obscure in 
their terms, so promiscuous in their arrangement, and 
so incomplete in their development of the various sub- 
jects, that they have been very unsatisfactory to both 
teacher and pupil. Authors, trying to render the work 
easy to the pupil by treating a little here and a little 
there, that the pupil might take it up, as it were, by 
absorption, have actually brought about obscurity 
rather than clearness. 

Many authors have ransacked the world for some 
new treatment of the different subjects, and have 
brought in useless terms and methods, suited only to 
confuse the teachers and pupils. The author of this 
work has tried to keep in the "middle of the road;" to 
avoid useless extremes and to adhere to the golden 
mean. 

That it may be easy to learn, the work is so classi- 
fied that the student knows when he begins a subject 
and when he has finished it. The outlines at the be- 
ginning, and the definitions and review questions at 
the close of a subject, enable the pupil to understand 



ii Eastman's Practical Grammar 

the nature and treatment of the matter before him. 

It is not promiscuous knowledge, but knowledge 
classified, that may be best utilized. 

That it may be easy to retain the principles taught, 
not only must the matter be so arranged as to furnish 
the pupil a classification of his acquired knowledge, but 
he must have an application of theory to practice by 
being supplied with copious exercises and careful drills. 

While it is believed that the exercises herein con- 
tained will, in general, be sufficient, the teacher is ex- 
pected to be the judge of this, and if the class needs 
more exercise on any point, he may supply the defi- 
ciency with blackboard drills. 

It is hoped that the extensive exercises under "Use 
and Misuse" will be of incalculable benefit to the 
pupils. It is believed that the analysis and diagram- 
ming is sufficiently exhaustive to furnish an excellent 
discipline for the mind, as well as to render the pupil 
thoroughly familiar with sentences. 

Figurative language, punctuation, and prosody are 
not so exhaustively treated, but sufficiently so, perhaps, 
for practical purposes. The further treatment of these 
subjects is left for composition and rhetoric. 

This work presupposes some knowledge of English 
grammar on the part of the pupil; but it can be taught 
to those who have not studied grammar before. 

It has been the author's intention to omit every- 
thing unnecessary, and to treat every necessary prin- 
ciple of the language; and having had a continued 
experience for a quarter of a century in all grades of 
schools from the district school through high schools 
and colleges, he hopes to present a work to the schools 
that will prove very practical. 

Grateful acknowledgements are tendered to Prof. 
J. E. Abney for many valuable suggestions, and for the 
critical reading of the manuscript. 

That this work will commend itself to the favorable 
notice of his fellow-teachers, is the sincere hope of 

The Author. 



Contents. 



PART 1. -ORTHOGRAPHY. 

Page 

Language . . 1 

Definitions . . . . . . . 3 

Divisions of Grammar 5 

ETYMOLOGY. 

Classification of the parts of speech— The noun . 7 

Definitions . 9 

Adjectives 10 

Definitions 14 

Pronouns 16 

Definitions 20 

Exercises on Pronoun and Review Questions . 22 

Verbs— The Sentence 23 

Phrases and Clauses— Definitions . . . .25 

Adverbs 26 

Definitions . 28 

Prepositions 29 

Conjunctions . .30 

Definitions 32 

Review Questions 33 

Interjections . 34 



IV 



Eastman's Practical Grammar 



PART II. -ETYMOLOGY. 




The Properties of The Noun 


.36 


Gender 


. 37 


Person 


42 


Number 


. 43 


Definitions 


46 


Review Questions 


. 47 


Case 


49 


The Nominative 


. 50 


The Possessive 


52 


The Objective 


'. 52 


Notes on Case 


55 


Apposition 


. 56 


Definitions 


57 


Exercises in Gender and Number . 


. 60 


Exercise in Case 


61 


Parsing Exercises 


. 61 


Review Questions 


64 


The Adjective 


. 65 


Comparison 


66 


Cautions 


. 67 


Notes on Limiting Adjectives . 


68 


The Article 


. 69 


Review Questions 


71 


The Pronoun 


. 71 


Personal 


72 


Relative 


. 73 


Long Forms 


74 


Adjective 


. 77 


Models for Parsing 


77 


Notes on the Pronoun .... 


. 78 


Review Questions 


80 



Eastman's Practical Grammar v 

The Verb 81 

Properties of the Verb— Mode .... 83 

Tense . . . 84 

Number, Person ...... 85 

Voice . ' . .86 

Definitions 86 

Review Questions . . . . . . .89 

Modes and Tenses . . . ... 8Q 

Indicative , . . .89 

Potential 90 

Subjunctive 91 

Imperative 92 

Infinitive .94 

Participles . . . . . . . . 95 

Review Questions . 98 

Models for Parsing ...... 99 

Parsing Exercises 101 

Conjugation 101 

Verb "be" 102 

"Love" . 104 

List of irregular verbs 110 

Errors to be avoided 118 

Adverbs . . .122 

Notes on the Adverbs 124 

Parsing Exercise . . . .... . 125 

Inflection . 126 

Prepositions ... . 127 

Notes on Prepositions 127 

Conjunctions 128 

Interjections . . . . . . . 129 

Review Exercise 130 

Review Questions . . ... . 132 



vi Eastman's Practical Grammar 

PART III. -SYNTAX. 

Word Influence 135 

Government 139 

Agreemert 145 

Modification 152 

Independent Relation 159 

Rules of Syntax 160 

Review Questions 161 

Parsing Exercises 164 

Kinds of Sentences 167 

Definitions 170 

Elements of the Sentence 171 

Definitions 175 

Subordinate Elements 177 

Order of Analysis 180 

Model of Analysis (Shorter form) . . . 186 

Review Questions 187 

Special Examples for Analysis . . . . 187 

Miscellaneous Examples for Analysis . . . 192 

Analysis by Diagrams 193 

Exercises in Diagramming and Analysis . . 199 

Exercises on Preceding Principles . . . 211 

Exercises in Analyzing, Diagramming and Parsing 228 

PART IV. 

Use and Misuse 231 

General Exercise in "Use and Misuse" . . 234 

Contractions 242 

Figures '. 245 

Review Questions 250 

Capital Letters ....... 251 

Exercises in Capital Letters .... 254 

Punctuation 255 

Exercises in Punctuation 265 

Prosody 267 



Eastman's Practical Grammar 



® n 

s? & 

i a. 

* 5 1 



Single vowels, 
Diphthongs, 
Triphthongs . 



Spoken 



Primary i 

Sound! ^ 



Labials, 
Dentals, 
Mutes ^Linguals, 
[Gutturals, 
Nasals. 



Semi vowels. 



Single vowels, 

Diphthongs, 

Tripthongs. 

Labials, 
.Dentals, 

^NLinguala, 
I Gutturals, 
Nasals. 



S«mi-row«ls. 



Natural Ungual* Inarticulate lang«ag« 



PART 1-OTHOGRAPHY 



1. Language. 

Language is the expression of thought. Artificial 
Language is acquired; whether it be spoken, or an ac- 
quired gesture, or signaling; such as, by a common un- 
derstanding, is used by r ; I road men, etc. 

A person that is l.<rn deaf does not talk, for the 
reason that he has never heard spoken language, and 
hence has never learned to speak. 

Natural Language belongs to both man and beast. 

There are certain gestures that we instinctively 
make when we wish to be understood by those who do 
not understand our language; and by these we succeed 
in communicating our thoughts and desires. 

Artificial Language, then, may be divided into 
articulate and inarticulate language. Of course the 
former is all that concerns us in this work, as it con- 
sists of words, etc.; and it is of these we now treat. 



2. Primary Sounds, Letters. 

Words may be spoken or written. When spoken, 
they consist of elementary sounds; when written thev 
consist of characters to represent these sounds, which 
are called letters. 

Vowel sounds are sounds that are unobstructed by 
the organs of speech. 

Vowel letters are letters that represent these un- 
obstructed sounds. 

Consonant sounds are obstructed sounds, and can 
only be vocalized by uniting vowel sounds with them; 
hence the name consonant 



Eastman's Practical Grammar 



Consonant letters are letters that represent these ob- 
structed sounds. 

Vowel sounds may be made singly, or they may be 
united in sound; in which case they are called, if two 
are united, diphthongs; and if three are united, triph- 
thongs. 

Two vowel letters written together, are called a 
diphthong; if both are sounded, such combination is 
called a proper diphthong; if only one of them is 
sounded, the union is called an improper diphthong, or 
digraph. 

If, when three vowels are written together, not all 
of them are sounded, such union is called an improper 
triphthong or trigraqh. 

The union of two consonants to form one sound is 
also called & digraph. 

Consonants are divided, according to the organ 
most used in their formation into labials, or lip-letters; 
dentals, or teeth-letters; Unguals, or tongue-letters; gut- 
turals, or throat-Utters; nasals, or sounds made through 
the nose. 

These are often combined, forming what are called 
labio-dentals, lingito-nasal8 } etc. 

Another division of consonants is mutes— such as, 
ending a word or syllable, stop the vocal sound; and 
semivowels, which, ending a word or a syllable, do not 
stop the sound. 

The vowels are a, e, i, o, u, w, and y; all of which 
are sometimes consonants, except a. E, i, u, and y, 
sometimes have the sounds of consonant y; that is, as 
y in young. 

W and Y are consonants when they begin a word 
or a syllable. 



Eastman's Practical Grammar 



3. Definitions. 



Language is the expression of thought. 

Artificial Language is a language that has to be 
learned. 

Natural Language is a language that does not 
have to be learned, but is prompted by nature. 

Articulate Language is a language uttered bv 
the human voice. 

Inarticulate Language is such as is not uttered 
by the human voice. 

A Word is the sign of an idea. 

A Letter is a written character representing an 
elementary sound. 

A Vocal, or Vowel Sound, is a sound produced 
with the organs of speech open. 

A Vowel Letter is a letter representing a vowel 
sound. 

A Consonant Sound is a sound obstructed by 
some organ, or organs, of speech. 

A Consonant Letter is a letter which represents 
a consonant sound. 

A Diphthong is the union of two vowels. 

An Improper Diphthong, or Vowel Digraph, is 
the union of two vowels, one of which is not sounded. 

A Ppoper Diphthong is the union of two vowels, 
both of which are sounded. 

An Improper Triphthong, or Vowel Trigraph, 
is the union of three vowels, not all of which are 
sounded. 

A Proper Triphthong is the union of three vowels, 
all of which are sounded. 



Eastman's Practical Grammar 



A Consonant Digraph is the union of two con- 
sonants to produce a single sound. 

A Mute is a consonant which, ending a word or a 
syllable, stops the sound. 

A Semivowel is a consonant which, ending a word 
or a syllable, does not stop the sound. 

The Liquids are 1, m, n and r. 

Labials, or Lip Letters, are those letters whose 
sounds are modified by the lips. 

Dentals, or Teeth Letters, are those letters 
whose sounds are modified by the teeth. 

Linguals, or Tongue Letters, are those letters 
whose sounds are modified by the tongue. 

Gutturals, or Palatals, are those letters whose 
sounds are modified by the palate. 

Nasals are letters sounded through the nose, or 
partly so. 

Aspirates are letters representing a breathing or 
a hissing sound. 



Eastman's Practical Grammar 



Grammar J 



Special 
English 



Orthography 

and 

Orthoepy, 



Etymology, 



Syntax, 



Prosody. 



Adjective 



Adverb , 
Preposition, 
Conjunction, 
Interjection. 



6 Eastman's Practical Grammar 

4. Grammar. 

Grammar is the science which treats of the form 
and construction of language; and may be divided into 
two classes: 

Universal Grammar treats of those general prin- 
ciples which are common to all languages. 

Special Grammar treats of the forms, changes, 
and construction of some special language, as English. 

English Grammar treats of the English language. 



5. Divisions. 



Orthoepy treats of the pronunciation of words. 

Orthography treats of the spelling of words. 

Both these are learned chiefly from spelling books 
and dictionaries; but so far as words undergo change 
of form on account of grammatical principles, they may 
be treated in a practical English grammar. For ex- 
ample, nouns change their spelling, and, of course, 
their pronunciation, on account of gender, number and 
case. Verbs, on account of voice, mode, tense, etc. 

Etymology treats of the derivation, classification, 
and properties of words. 

A practical English grammar needs only to deal 
with the classification and properties of words, in its 
etymological division. 

Syntax treats of sentences— their formation and 
construction. 

Prosody treats of the laws of versification. 



Eastman's Practical Grammar 7 

6. Classification. 

By Classification we mean the division of the 
language into eight classes, which are called parts of 
speech; viz, the noun, the adjective, the pronoun, the 
verb, the adverb, the preposition, the conjunction and 
the interjection. 



7. The Noun. 



Substantial. 
Common J Abstract, 

I X e , r , ba1 ;- 

V. Collective. 
Proper. 

A Noun is a name. 

A Common Noun is a name common to all the in- 
dividuals of a class. The name boy is common to every 
male child. It is as applicable to one as to another. 

When the early explorers of America came to a 
large stream of water, they knew it to be a river, be- 
cause every such stream was entitled to that name. 
The name was common to all such streams; but as yet 
they did not know such streams as "The James River", 
"The Mississippi River," etc.; for the special names 
had yet te be given. 

A Proper Noun is a special name given to distin- 
guish anything from others of its class. Such name is 
always given in addition to the common name. 



8 Eastman's Practical Grammar 

Common Nouns are still further divided into sub- 
stantial, abstract, verbal and collective nouns. 

Substantial Nouns are the names of substances; 
such as gold, tin, etc. 

Abstract Nouns are the names of qualities consid- 
ered apart from the objects to which they belong. 

Verbal Nouns are the names of actions, states of 
being, etc. 

Collective Nouns are the names of things which 
are possessed of animal life, considered as a collection; 
as herd, regiment, congregation, etc. 

Such words as grove, cluster, etc . are not collec- 
tive nouns; as they are not subject to the treatment in 
grammar that belongs to collections of things possessed 
of animal life. 



EXERCISE I. 

Point end and classify tin nouns in thejollovnng: 

1. Jchn drove the horses to the pasture. 2. May 
is liked because of her sweetness of temper. 3. Jump- 
ing makes a boy sore. 4. He was punished for steal- 
ing a horsr. 5. Rev. Smith preached to a large con- 
gregation. G. The committee reported favorably. 7. 
To play is pleasant. 8. A damp atmosphere is not 
good for consumption. 9. "The evil that men do lives 
after them; the good is often interred with their bones; 
so let it be with Caesar." 10. The dark ages were 
not propitious for the advancement of learning and 
Christianity. 



Eastman's Practical Grammar 9 

7. Definitions. 

Grammar is the science which treats of language. 

Universal Grammar treats of those general prin- 
ciples which are common to all languages. 

Special Grammar treats of such principles as are 
peculiar to a certain language, in addition to the prin- 
ciples that are universal. 

English Grammar is the science which treats of 
the English language. 

Orthography treats of the formation of words by 
letters, and such other marking as is necessary to 
written words. 

Orthoepy treats of the pronunciation of words. 

Etymology treats of the derivation, classification, 
and properties of words. 

Syntax treats of sentences— their formation and 
construction. 

Prosody treats of the laws of versification. 



A Noun is a name. 

A Common Noun is a name common in its appli- 
cation to all the individuals of a class. 

A Proper Noun is a name given to one to distin- 
guish this one from others of the class. 

A Substantial Noun is the name of a substance. 

An Abstract Noun is the name of a quality. 

A Verbal Noun is the name of an action or state 
of being, etc. 



10 



Eastman's Practical Grammar 



A Collective Noun is the name of a collection of 
things that have animal life.* 



8. Adjectives. 



Qualifying 



: 

Oomparativi 
sui erlative. 



aDJEOTIVKfc 









I c'ihujkiliikI and others 

/ Distributive, 
( Demonetral ve 
Vlndefit it.-. , 



Cardinal, 

Ordinal, 

Multiplicative. 

Definite, 
indefinite 



An Adjective ia a word us< d to modify a noun or 
a pronoun. 

A Qualifying Adjei tive expresses a quality; as, 

. bitter, large, etc. It has the property called 
comparison; i, e., it changes its form to denote, prima- 
rily, the degrees of quality possessed by things 
compa 



ipplication of the collective noun to those things only which 
have animal life, may seem erroneous lo one who has never given it special 
thought; but ili«- peculiarity of the collective noun to l>e followed l>y a pro- 
noun or verh in the plural, when reference la made to the Individuals of 
the collection, ia onlj true of collections of individuals that have animal 
life. 

We >ay of a committee, they wen- divided in their opinions, etc. We 
never si»y ol I grove, "tl. V or "were". 



Eastman's Practical Grammar 11 



The Positive Degree merely denotes quality 
without expressing or implying a comparison with any- 
thing else. 

The Comparative Degree shows comparison be- 
tween two things, or sets of things; and implies a great- 
er or less degree of quality in the one than in the other. 

This degree is formed, if it implies an increase of 
quality, by adding r or er, or by prefixing more 
to the postive. 

If it implies a decrease of quality it is formed by 
prefixing less to the positive. 

The Superlative Degree expresses comparison of 
three or more things, or sets of things, and indicates 
the greatest degree of quality possessed by the things 
thus compared. 

It is, however, sometimes used to express merely a 
very great degree of quality, without comparing. It 
is then called an absolute superlative; as, Most learned 
judge. 

This degree is formed by adding st or est, or 
by prefixing most to express increase of quality; and 
by prefixing least to express a decreasing comparison. 

The above is the regular method of forming the de- 
grees of comparison; but some adjectives are compared 
very irregularly, e. g., good is compared as follows: 
Pos. Good, 
Com. Better, 
Superl. Best, 



12 Eastman's Practical Grammar 

The folloiving illustrates regular methods: 

OLD 

Pos. Old, 
Cow. Older, 
Superl. Oldest. 

GRACEFUL. 
fading. Descending. 

Pos. Graceful, Pos. Graceful, 

Com. More graceful, Com. Less graceful, 
Sujh rl. Most graceful. Superl. Least graceful. 

Some authors object to using the adverbs more, 
most, etc., to compare the adjective, but together they 
express the same idea as single words in other lan- 
guages, and for that reason they may he taken together. 
The method has the virtue of simplicity, at least. 

We seldom add er and est to adjectives of 
more than one syllable. 

Words of two syllables accented on the last or end- 
ing in the le may add i r and est. 

A shade of meaning below the positive may b 
made by adding ish or //; e. g.. sweetish, bluish, 
salty, rhese words are used when but little of the 
quality is possessed. 

Compare: Old, young, sweet, sour, discreet, able, 
beautiful, handsome, kind, remote, quick, long, short, 
salubrious, treacherous, broad. 

Some adjectives are superlative by nature, and hence 
are not compared; as supreme, eternal, universal. 

Other* that have a superlative signification are 
compared; as, perfect, white, round, black, straight, etc. 

Such adjectives are used with objects that really 
do not possess the superlative quality, but merely ap - 



Eastman's Practical Grammar 13 



proximate it. We say: He is the most perfect gentle- 
man I ever met; or. of a tree, that it is round; of cloth, 
it is white, etc. , when the truth is, they only approxi- 
mate perfection, roundness, whiteness, etc. 

Point out the words that may be compared: Supreme, 
thorough, universal, extreme, divine, square, absolute. 

Descriptive adjectives describe without expressing 
quality. They are proper, participial, compound, etc.^ 

Proper Adjectives are derived from proper 
nouns; as, French, Methodist, etc. 

Participial Adjectives are such as describe by 
suggesting action, being, etc.; as, the rising sun. 

Compound Adjectives are compound descriptive 
words; as, blue-eyed, laughter-loving, etc. 

Limiting Adjectives merely limit the application 
of the noun. They are divided into: 

Distributives; as, each, every, either, neither, 
many a, etc. 

Demonstratives; as, this, that, these, those, former, 
latter, etc. 

Indefinites; as, some, any, all, such, none, few, 
many, etc. 

Numerals: (a) cardinals; as, one, two, etc.; (b) 
ordinals; as, first, second, etc.; (c) multiplicatives; as, 
two-fold, etc. 

Articles; (a) the definite '"the"; (b) the indfinite 
"a" or "an". 

Distributives modify nouns in the singular number 
only. 

Demonstratives are ntsed in showing or pointing 
out. 



14 Eastman's Practical Grammar 



Indefinites modify indefinitely. 

Numerals express number. If they are used 
merely in counting, they are cardinals. If in giving 
the order, thej are ordinals. If in telling how many 
fold, they are multiplicatives. 

EXERCISE II. 

Point out and classify the adjectives, and, it qual- 
ify ing, compare them. 

1. Ten tall slim saplings stood near that spot. 2. 
A unanimous vote elected this great man to the respon- 
sible position. 3. Each boy must study his own les- 
son. 4. The moss-covered bucket hung in the old 
well. 5. A sunny smile conquered the angry father. 



9. Definitions. 

An Adjective is a word used to modify nouns or 
pronouns, or to limit their applications.* 

A Qualifying Adjective is an adjective that ex- 
presses quality. 

Comparison is the property of the qualifying ad- 
jective by virtue of which it changes its form to show 
two degrees of comparison (besides the positive). 

The Positive Degree asserts a simple quality. 

The COMPARATIVE Degree is that form which 
shows comparison, between two things, or sets of things. 

The SUPERLATIVE Degree is that form which 
shows comparison of three or more things, or sets of 
things. 

•It it evidently eironeous to My that the limiting adjective qualifies. 
1 merely limit* the application to the ol.ject 



Eastman's Practical Grammar 15 



A Descriptive Adjective is an adjective that de- 
scribes without expressing quality, as proper adjec- 
tives, participal and compound. 

A Limiting Adjective is an adjective that limits 
the application of a noun or pronoun. 

The limiting adjective is divided into five classes. 

The distributive adjective is a limiting adjective 
that expresses the idea of one only, but that one as- 
sociated with others. 

The demonstrative adjective is a limiting adjective 
used in pointing out, or showing. 

The indefinite adjective is a limiting adjective that 
expresses the application indefinitely. 

The Numeral Adjective is an adjective used to 
express number. It is either cardinal, ordinal, or mul- 
tiplicative. 

The Cardinal Numerals are those used in count- 
ing. 

The Ordinals are those used in telling the order 
of things. 

The Multiplicatives are these that tell how many 
fold. 

The Article: A or an and the are called articles. 

EXAMPLES. 

Distributives: Each, every, either, neither, many 
a, such a, etc. 

Demonstrative: This, that, these, those, former, 
latter, yon, and yonder. 



16 



Eastman's Practical Grammar 



Indefinite: Some, other, any, all, such, none, many, 
etc. 

Cardinal Numerals: One, two, three, four, etc. 
Ordinal Numerals: First, second, third, etc. 
Multiplicatives: Two- fold, three- fold, etc. 
The Definite Article: "The." 
The Indefinite Article: "A" or "an." 

EXERCISE III. 

Point out and classify all the nouns and adjectives r 
and tell what nouns the adjectives modify: 

1. The old iron-bound, moss-covered bucket hung 
in the well. 2. Remembered well is that dear home 
of my early boyhood. 3. A harmless, necessary cat. 
4. Ten little Indians stood in a line. 5. The first In- 
dian went home and then there were nine. 6. Each 
student must attend to his own lesson. 7. Be kind to 
each other. 8. The German language. 9. A moving 
object. 



10. Pronouns. 



J Comix mini. 



™«*+ | ConSun, 



in >.\< i 



N- C In 



terrogative, 



I>. ni.'iiHtrative, 
Imli-Hnite. 



J DixtributiTe. ( .. .._.. 
1 Nuin.-ral, ,' r>rdlual. 



\ OMliual, 

| Multiplicative. 



Eastman's Practical Grammar 17 

A Pronoun is a word used instead of a noun. 

A Personal Pronoun is a pronoun that shows by 
its form whether it is of the first person, the second 
person, or the third person. 

Note.— Many students acquire the notion, in some way, that this kind 
of pronoun is called personal because it is used for the name of a person. 
The teacher should correct this idea at once. "He" may refer to a horse 
or a dog. "She" may refer to a cow, etc. 

A Simple Personal Pronoun is a personal pro- 
noun unconnected with any other word; as, he, she, etc. 

A Compound Personal Pronoun is formed by 
adding "self" or "selves" to the simple pronoun; as, 
myself, himself, yourself, herself, itself, themselves. 

A Relative Pronoun is a pronoun which relates 
to some word going before called an antecedent, and 
introduces a subordinate clause. 

EXPLANATION: A sentence is a collection of 
words containing a subject and a predicate; as, "The 
boy plays in the house. " Here "boy" is the subject 
because it represents that of which something is as- 
serted. Plays is the predicate because it represents 
what is said of the boy. 

Now, a subordinate sentence represents an element 
of a sentence, and contains a subject and a predicate; 
as, "The boy (who stays at home) plays in the house." 
Who, here relates to boy for its antecedent, and is 
the subject of stays. 

Note. — The teacher should illustrate this with various examples till 
the class understand it. 

A Simple Relative Pronoun is a relative that is 
unconnected with any other word; as, who. which, 
that, what. 

A Compound Relative Pronoun is a relative pro- 
noun connected with ever, soever, or so, as whoever, 
whosoever, whichever, etc. 



18 Eastman's Practical Grammar 

An Interrogative Pronoun is a relative pronoun 
in form, (who, which, what) used in a question, and 
the word for which it stands, occurs in the answer; as, 
"Who wants this apple?" Answer. "I" (want it). 

An Adjective Pronoun is a limiting adjective 
used for the noun it would limit if it were expressed; 
as, This (book) is my book. 

For convenience it is divided into classes just as the 
limiting adjective is, viz,, distributive, indefinite, de- 
monstrative, numeral. 

The Article is never a pronoun. 

Note There seems to be no good reason for treating the limiting 
adjective thus, to the exclusion of the qualifying adjective but we prefer to 
avoid innovation. 

Commit to memory in order as they occur: 

A LIST OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 



I. 


wo. 


my or mine. 


our or ours, 


me; 


us. 


You, 


you, 


your or yours, 


your or yours 


you; 


vou. 


thou, 


ye, 


thy or thine, 


your or yours. 


thee; 


you. 


he, 


they, 


his, 


their or theirs, 


him. 


them. 



Eastman's Practical Grammar 



19 



she, 

her or hers, 

her; 

it, 

its, 

it. 



they, 

their or theirs, 

them. 

they. 

their or theirs, 

them. 



himself, 



Compounds: Myself, yourself, thyself, 
herself, itself, themselves. 

EXERCISE IV. 

Point out the personal pronouns: 

1. John goes to school, he learns fast, and his 
teacher likes him. 2. I try to act by you as I would 
act toward myself. 3, "To thyself be true" and thou 
canst not then be false to me. 4. My friends, go with 
us; we will do you good. 5. "0 ye of little faith", 
6. They storm the fort. 7. Their steeds are fiery. 
8. Blessings upon thee. 9. I go with you. 

List of relative pronouns to be committed in 
order: 

Who, 

whose, These pronouns refer to persons. 

whom. 



Which, 
whose, 
which. 

That, 
What, 

As, 



These refer to animals and inanimate 
objects. 

This pronoun refers to persons, 

animals, or inanimate objects. J.-.-v-i 

This pronoun refers to inanimate ob- 

objects. 

This word is a relative after many, 

such, same. 



20 Eastman's Practical Grammar 

List of compound relatives to commit to memory. 
Whoever or whosoever or whoso, 
Whosever, whosesoever, 
Whomever, whichsoever, 
Whatever, whatsoever. 
List of adjective pronouns to commit in order: 
Distributives: Each, either, neither. 
Demonstratives: This, that, these, those, former, 
latter, yon, yonder. 

Indefinite*: Some, other, any, all, such, none, 
many, few. 

Numerals: (a) Cardinals: One, two, three, four, 
etc. (b) Ordinals: First, second, third, etc. 



11. Definitions. 



A Pronoun is a word used instead of a noun. 

A Personal Pronoun is a pronoun which shows 
by its form whether it represents the speaker, the per- 
son or thing spoken to, or the person or thing spoken 
of. 

A Simple Personal Pronoun is a personal pro- 
noun not connected with the word self or selves, 

A Compound Personal Pronoun is a personal 
pronoun united with the word self or set vs. 

A Relative Pronoun is a pronoun that relates 'to 
an antecedent word and introduces a clause. 

A Simple Relative Pronoun is a relative pro- 
noun not united with the words ever, soever, or so. 



Eastman's Practical Grammar 21 

A Compound Relative Pronoun is a simple rela- 
tive pronoun united with ever, soever, or so. 

An Interrogative Pronoun is a relative pronoun 
in form used in a question, having its antecedent in the 
answer. This antecedent is properly a subsequent. 

An Adjective Pronoun, or Pronominal Adjec- 
tive, is a limiting adjective used instead of the noun, 
understood, which it would modify if expressed in full. 

Distributives are adjective pronouns used distribu- 
tive^ for nouns in the singular number. 

Demonstratives are adjective pronouns used in 
pointing out or showing. 

Indefinites are adjective pronouns which express 
a reference to the noun in an indefinite manner. 

Numerals are adjective pronouns used in number- 
ing. Of these the cardinals merely number and the 
ordinals tell the order of number. 

EXERCISE V. 

Point out and classify the nouns, pronouns and 
adjectives. 

1. The assembly manifested great agitation among 
themselves. 2. They were expecting the greatest 
event of the nineteenth century. 3. Her beauty is 
equaled by her goodness. 4. Gold is more precious 
than silver. 5. Mary and her little lamb, whose fleece 
was so white, has been the occasion of much com- 
ment. 6. "Whosoever will, let him come and drink of 
the water of life freely. 7. Some say this, others, 
that, but I have my own opinion. 8. Each student 
must prepare his own lesson. 9. Every blade of grass, 
every shrub and every tree was destroyed. 10. Do 
not trust the first man that smiles upon you. 11. 



22 Eastman's Practical Grammar 



Columbus did not know he had discovered a great 
continent. 12. Doing gives power to do. 13. A sea- 
faring* man must undergo many hardships. 14. Ten 
men did the work. 15. Who said that I was angry? 
16. "Who told thee that thou wast naked?" 



REVIEW QUESTIONS. 1. 

1. What is a noun? 2. A proper ncun? 3. A 
common noun? 4. A substantial noun? 5. An ab- 
stract noun? 6. A verbal noun? 7. A collective 
noun? 

8. What is an adjective? 9. A qualifying adjective? 
10. A descriptive adjective? 11. A limiting adjective? 
12. A distributive? 13. An indefinite? 14. A demon- 
strative? 1"). A numeral? 16. A cardinal? 17. An 
ordinal? IS. A multiplicative? 19. What is an 
article? 20. Which is definite? 21. Which is indefi- 
nite? 

22. What is a pronoun? 23. A personal? 24. A 
simple pronoun? 25. A compound personal? 25. A 
relative pronoun? 26. Simple relative? 27. A com- 
pound relative? 28. What is an interrogative pro- 
noun 7 29. An adjective pronoun? 30. A distribu- 
tive? 31. An indefinite? 3"\ A demonstrative? 33. 
A numeral? 

84. Name in order the simple personal pronouns. 
35. The compound personal pronouns. 36. The simple 
relative. 37. The compound relative. 38. The mterroga- 
tives. 39. The distributives. 40. The demonstratives. 
41. The indefinite?. 42. The numerals, both cardinal 
and ordinal. 



♦Descriptive adjective Win ! 



Eastman's Practical Grammar 23 

12. Verbs. 



Principal J Transitive 

| Intransitive 
Copulative 



A Yerb is a word that expresses action, being or 
state of being. 

As no sentence can exist without it, the verb 
is so-called because it means the word, being derived 
from verbum in Latin which signifies word. 

In consequence of its importance, it is sometimes 
called the root, or the life of the sentence. 

To understand this, it is necessary to explain the 
sentence further. 



13. The Sentence. 

We have seen that a sentence is a collection of 
words expressing a thought. A thought cannot exist 
without these two parts: Something to constitute the 
subject of thought, i. e., something to think about; and 
something to be thought of this subject, i. e., some 
action, being, or state of being, attributed to the sub- 
ject of thought. 

Take the sentence, John writes. Here the idea of 
something to perform the act is expressed by the word 
John. This is the subject of the thought. 



24 Eastman's Practical Grammar 



The id. a of the act attributed to John is expressed 
by the word writes. 

The two ideas, taken together, constitute a thought; 
and the expression of a thought in words is called a 
sentence. 

A thought may contain other ideas associated witn 
the two principle ideas ; as we may think of John as 
old and black; these ideas taken collectively would be 
expressed by the words, "old black John." The idea 
of the action may be associated with the idea 
of rapidity ; and the attributed idea of action, we will 
say, is that of chopping, the idea would be chopping 
rapidly. The two groups of ideas would then consti- 
tute a thought expressed in words: "Old black John 
chops rapidly. " Here chops is the verb as is also write* 
in the former sentence. It is easy to see that if we re- 
move these wordfl from the above sentences, there will 
be no sense expressed ; hence these words are called 
"verbs" (the word). 

The above n-marks do not apply, however, to copu- 
lative verbs; such as, am, are, is, etc., as these are 
only used, as the name implies, to couple the attributed 
idea to the subject of thought, thus : "John is sick." 
Here the attributed idea is not expressed by the word 
is, but by the word sick. It is his sickness we think 
of, and speak of, and not his existence. 

These words being sometimes principle, however, 
and not copulative, are called verbs. In "John chops 
wood," we have three ideas expressed by the three 
corresponding words in the sentence ; 1st, an idea of a 
subject of action ; 2nd, an idea of action, and 3rd, an 
idea of an object upon which the action is exerted. 

This third element of the sentence is called the ob- 
ject ; and when it occurs, or may occur, the verb is 
calle I transitive ; if the verb has no such object, it is 
called an intransitive verb. 



Eastman's Practical Grammar 25 

14. Phrases and Clauses. 

The separate ideas, contained in a thought, are rep- 
resented by words, the signs of ideas. 

These words are elements in a sentence, according 
to the offices they perform. But sometimes it requires 
a group of words to constitute an element or to per- 
form a single office; as. "Men of industry succeed." 
/ Men of industry \ Here of industry is equal to 
\ industrious men / industrious and so perform a 
single office, and is a single element, even though sep- 
arable into its parts. 

Sometimes a group of words forming an element of 
a sentence contains a subject and a predicate; as, Men 
who are industrious succeed. Here again, who are in- 
dustrious, is equivalent to the adjective industrious 
placed before the noun men. Industrious men succeed, 
Men who are industrious succeed. Such groups of 
words, forming elements of sentences, and yet contain- 
ing within themselves each a subject and a predicate, 
are called clauses. 



15. Definitions. 



A Verb is a word which express action, or being, 
or a state of being. 

Principal Verbs are verbs that express the prin- 
cipal attributed idea. 

Copulative Verbs are those that merely connect 
the real attribute, or predicate to the subject. 

Transitive Verbs by use are those that show an 
act done to an object. 



26 Eastman's Practical Grammar 

Transitive Verbs by nature are those that natur- 
ally admit an object. 

Intransitive Verbs by use are those that are used 
without objects. 

Intransitive Verbs by nature are those that do 
not naturally admit an object. 



16 Adverbs. 



I Tempore], 

ADVERBS 5jod»i. 

1 Manner, 



Decree 



[nterrogatire 

Negative, 

Beeponsirei 

Correlative, 

Conjunctive, 

Expletive. 



An Adverb is a word used to modify a verb, an 
adjective, or an adverb; by telling: when, where, how 
and t<> what exli fit. 

It also has the further use of asking, denying, an- 
swering, correlating, connecting and of merely fillinsr 
out expressions. 

Temporal Adverbs are those that refer to time 
when. Sometimes they occur in an affirmation, and 
sometimes in a question, and sometimes in a denial; as. 
He will soon arrive (affirmation). When will he ar- 
rive? (question). He will never arrive, (denial). 

Local Adverbs are those that refer to iiht<< 
whi re; and they may be used in affirmations, in ques- 
tions and in negations; as, Take me to my childhood 
home irhcrc I once was so happy. Wherr is your home? 
It is not there. 

Modal Adverbs are those that express the manner 



Eastman's Practical Grammar 27 

of an assertion; as, surely, certainly, perhaps, prob- 
ably, etc. 

Adverbs of Manner express the manner of ac- 
tion, etc. 

Adverbs of Degree are those that tell the extent; 
as, He is very sick. 

Interrogative Adverbs are adverbs used to ask 
questions. For example see above. 

Negative Adverbs are adverbs used in denying. 

Note. As they require special attention further on, in correction of 
false syntax, special drill should be given by the teacher, till the students 
understand negatives. 

Responsives* are yes, no, and amen. 

They are usually treated as adverbs modifying a 
whole sentence. By some they are considered as 
equivalent to whole sentences. 

Correlative Adverbs are adverbs used in pairs, 
correlating in such a way that one suggests the other. 
They are often used with the word the, which then 
ceases to be an article and becomes an adverb; as, 
"The more we play, the less we learn." "The farther 
he goes, the faster he travels". 

Conjunctive Adverbs are abverbs used to connect 
like conjunctions and to modify at the same time. In 
such sentences as "Dew glitters when the sun shines," 
"Work while it is day," etc., when and while 
connect like conjunctions, and each word will expand 
into two phrases; one of the phrases modifying the 
verb in one sentence, and the other, in the other. Dew 

*l see no good reason to 1reat them as anything but interjections 
except to avoid innovation Interjections are independent — these words 
seem to be much so. 



28 Eastman's Practical Grammar 

glitters when the sun shines. Dew glitters (during 
the time) (in which) the sun shines. "During the 
time" modifies gutters, and "in which" modifies shines. 
The same may be shown of while in the second 
sentence. 

An Expletive Advepb is an adverb that loses its 
modifying force, and merely fills out the expression. 



17. Definitions. 



Adverbs are words used to modify verbs, adjec- 
tives and other adverbs. 

Temporal Adverbs are adverbs that relate to 
time. 

Local Adverbs are adverbs that relate to place. 

Modal Adverbs are adverbs that relate to man- 
m r qf assertion. 

Adverbs of Manner express the manner of act- 
tion, etc. 

Adverbs of Degree are adverbs that tell to what 

Interrogative Adverbs are adverbs used in ask- 
ing tj)i< stin/is. 

Negative Adverbs are adrerbs used in denying. 

Responsive Adverbs are adverbs used in re- 
tpom 

Correlative Adverbs are adverbs used in pairs. 

Conjunctive Adverrs are adverbs that connect a 
principal preposition to a subordinate one. 

Expletive Adverbs are adverbs used merely to fill 
out an expression, and are independent in construction 



Eastman's Practical Grammar &9 

EXERCISE VI. 

Point out the verbs and adverbs, and classify each; 
also tell what the adverbs modify: 

1. He soon fell into bad habits. 2. He still stands 
where I left him. 3. The boats moved smoothly over 
the sea. 4. I am very tired. 5. Where is your boy 
now? 6. Taste not of the forbidden fruit. 7. Are 
you now happy? Yes; perfectly happy. 9. I will 
come very soon. 10. The more we talked the less we 
found to say. 11. Let us labor while it is day. 12. 
Now, he was learning very well. 13. There are four 
genders. 14. "Retire or taste the folly. " 15. lam 
very well. How is your mother? 17. Why do you 
speak? 18. I certainly told you. 



18. Prepositions. 



If I say, "John ran around the house, and through 
the hall, into the back yard;" the words "around" 
"through," and "into" show the relation of the act of 
running, to the house, the hall and the back yard. 
Around the house, through the hall, and into the back 
yard are adverbial phrases, each modifying the verb 
ran. The words house, hall, and yard are placed 
as objects after the words, around, through, and 
into like objectives after transitive verbs except 
that they are objects of relations instead of actions; 
hence they are called the objects of the prepositions. 

A Preposition is a word which shows the relation 
of an object, to the word which the phrase modifies. 

A preposition may consist of more than one word, 
or of one word only. 



30 



Eastman's Practical Grammar 





LIST OF PREPOSITIONS. 




About, 


before, 


during, 


touching, 


above, 


behind, 


except, 


toward, 


across, 


below, 


excepting, 


towards, 


after, 


beneath, 


for, 


under, 


against, 


beside, 


from, 


underneath, 


along, 


besides, 


in, 


unto, 


amid, 


between, 


into, 


up, 


amidst, 


betwixt, 


instead of, 


upon, 


among, 


beyond, 


notwith- 
standing, 


with, 


around, 


but. 


of, 


within, 


as, 


by, 


off, 


without, 


at, 


concerning, 


on (never onto) 


as to, 


down. 


to, with respect to 


Noi e.- 


1 a jiirt 


ial list which shoul< 


1 lie committe i to 


mcmory. 









l ^. Conjunctions. 






i Cupulativ.-. I Co 

-Mill ll.llll it. 

( Di~,un "the, I Correlative. 



Conjunctions are words used to connect words, 

phrases, and clauses. They usually connect elements 

of the same construction ; as, nouns and pronouns that 

:u the office as Buhiect, or as object, etc., but this 

is not always th ca 

Copulative Conjunctions not only connect the 
parts by filling up a space that would otherwise inter- 
ith the harmonious flow of the sentence, but ex- 
press an idea of something a Ided. They are some- 



Eastman's Practical Grammar 31 



times called augmentatives ; and, also, as well as, etc. 

Disjunctive Conjunctions are conjunctions which, 
while they connect the parts so as to prevent a break in 
the flow of the sentence, they express a separation of 
the parts thus connected. In the sentence John or 
James will come, if or b: omitted ths sentence is 
broken; thus John— Jame i will come. Or connects 
these parts so as to prevent this; yet it conveys the 
idea that one or the other —not both— will come. Or, 
nor, yet are examples. 

Co-ordinate Conjunctions connect elements of 
equal rank; i. e., words with words, phrases with 
phrases, clauses with clauses, and sentences with 
sentences, 

There are some exceptions to this principle, as, A 
man that is sick, and on the bed of affliction, etc. Here 
sick and on the bed of affliction are the parts con- 
nected. 

Subordinate Conjunctions connect elements of 
unequal rank; usually principal propositions to depen- 
dent or subordinate ones; as, "They protected him for 
he was a good man." Here for connects the subordi- 
nate clause to the leading proposition and is called a 
subordinate conjunction. For, because, etc., are ex- 
amples. 

Correlative Conjunctions are connectives used 
in pairs; the first introduces the sentence or part, and 
intensifies the connection made with another; as, "Both 
John and Mary have come." 



32 



Eastman's Practical Grammar 





LIST OF CONJUNCTIONS. 
Co-o rdinate Conju notions: 




Also, 


but, moreover. 


so, 


although, 


either, neither, 


still, 


and, 


else, nor, 


though. 


besides, 


furthermore, or, 


yet, 


both. 


likewise, otherwise. 
Subordinate Conjunctions. 




After, 


if, provided, 


therefore. 


because. 


see. since, 


unless. 


except. 


in case, than, 


whether, 


for. 


but. that. 
REMARKS. 





Prepositions and conjunctions are both connectives; 
but the connection shown by the preposition is slight 
as compared with that of the conjunction. 



20 Definitions 



A Preposition is a word wwich introduces a 

phrase, connects its object to the word modified, and 
shows the relation between them- 

A Conjunction is a word which connects words. 
phrases, and clai 

A Co-ordinate Conjunction is one which con- 
nects elements of equal rank. 

A Subordinate Conjunction is one that connects 

elements of unequal rank. 



Eastman* 's Practical Grammar 33 



k Correlative Conjunction introduces a sen- 
tence or a part of a sentence and intensifies the con- 
nection of another conjunction with which it is paired. 

these three are classed according to use; the fol- 
lowing, according to meaning: 

A Copulative Conjunction is one that couples 
parts of sentences together, and expresses the idea of 
addition or continuation, etc. 

A Disjunctive Conjunction couples the parts of 
a sentence together, but expresses a separation, or con- 
trast of ideas. 

EXERCISE VII. 

Point out the prepositions and conjunctions; classify 
the latter: 

1. John and James capered and laughed, but 
Mary sat and wept; for she had broken her doll. 2. 
Both poverty and wealth are temptations. 3. In 
America we boast of our freedom and independence; 
but many are slaves to vicious habits, as well as to the 
dictates of fashion. 4. He is a gentleman notwith- 
standing he is poor, and dressed in "seedy" clothes. 

REVIEW QUESTIONS. 2. 

1. What is a verb? 2. What kinds have thus far 
been explained? 3. -What is a principal verb? 4. A 
copula verb? 5. A transitive verb? 6. An intransi- 
tive verb? 7. In what two ways may a verb be tran- 
sitive? 8. Explain and give examples. 

9. What is a sentence? 10. Distinguish between 
the principal proposition ahd the subordinate clause? 
11. What is the subject of a sentence? 12. What 
the predicate? 13. What the object? 14. What is a 
phrase? 



34 Eastman's Practical Grammar 



15. What is an adverb? 16. A temporal adverb? 
17. A modal adverb? 18. A local adverb? 19. An 
adverb of degree? 20. An interrogative adverb? 21. 
A negative adverb? 22. A responsive adverb? 23. 
Give the substance of the foot note concerning respon- 
sives? 24. What are correlative adverbs? 25. Conjunc- 
tive adverbs? 26. Expletives? 

27. What is a conjunction? 28. What are the di- 
visions of conjunctions according lo use? 29. Accord- 
ing to meaning? 30. What is a co-ordinate conjunc- 
tion? 31. A subordinate? 32. A correlative? 33. 
What is a copulative conjunction? 34. A disjunctive. 

35. Define a preposition. 36. Repeat the list of 
prepositions. 37. Of conjunctions. 

Note. The teacher should give such drills on the parts of speech a s 
to make the pupils Familiar with them. 



21 Interjections 

Interjections are used:— 

(a) Te express emotion; as, Oh! Alas! Ah! 

(b) To attract attention: as. Halloo! ho! hem, 
llhl 1)1. 

(c) To ask questions indirectly; as, Eh? hey? 

(d) To answer questions; as, Yes, no, dr.* 



•Aab ," etc f are variously treat* 1 oy gr.im. 

maiiar r they are the equivalent* of whole scntenrcs; as, Are 

yo« liungr) '.' Yes. Here it is said that "yes" = "I am hungry." 

As well SSJ, when a speaker says something that pleases his hearers 
and they cry "goud."' or '•hurrah!" that these words are equivalent to the 
sentence, We likew! that remark heartily." etc. 



Eastman's Practical Grammar 35 



(e) To express approval; as, Amen! hurrah! * 
DEFINITION. 

Interjections are used to express emotion, at- 
tract attention, to ask questions indirectly, to answer 
questions, and to express approval and disapproval. 



*We do not try to expand "good," "hurrah " etc , into sentences, but are 
content to parse them as interjections. Then why not parse "yes," and 
•'no" as such? 

Some grammarians teach that 'yes," 'no." etc.. are adverbs, modi- 
fying a whole sentence. Sometimes, though rarely, a word may modify a 
whole sentence; but these words never do. 

Three natures of the interjections are: Firsi, they are words that 
have no meaning. Second, they are always used for a purpose, such as to 
let others know we suffer, to call, etc. Third, they are used independent- 

As "yes," "no," etc., lossess exactly these characteristic!;, we shall 
rail them interjections. 



PART II ~ ETYMOLOGY 



1 The Properties of the Noun 



i'ruperti'** ol 

ih.< Nona *j 



Number 



Masculine, 
Feminine. 
Common, 

Neater. 

First. 

Second, 

Third. 



.' Singular 
) Plural. 



Nominative 



'•N, ^ Pi 






Subject, 

Predicate, 
Predicate after a i 

ciplf, 
Independent 
(a) l>y address, 
(i>) i>>- exclamatiou, 
(o) by pleonasm. 
Absolute. 



Possebsioo, 
AotbonUp 
Origin, 
Kind. 



< )f tram itiv verbs, 
of transitive participle* 
of prepositioua. 
Indirect, or Kuk- dative. 
Complement. 
Kubiect cf innuitiv • 
Predicate, 
Independent, 

Adverbial , 

Oognata* 



A Noun is a name. 

A Property of a Fart of Speech is whatever 
belongs to it. 

These properties cause words to undergo change of 
form; and these changes are called inflections. 

The noun is inflected for gender, number and case. 
Person does not cause any inflection in the noun. 



Eastman's Practical Grammar 37 



2 Gender 



There are four genders, three persons, two num- 
bers, and three cases. These cases are further divid- 
ed as follows: 

The nominative has seven constructions, the pos. 
sessive has four, and the objective has ten. 

These latter divisions, however, effect no further 
inflection of the noun. 

Gender is the property of a noun or a pronoun 
with regard to sex. 

If the noun or pronoun has the nature to be applied 
to males only it is of the masculine gender (or nature). 

If it has the nature to be applied to females only, 
it is of the feminine gender. 

If it has the nature to be applied to things which 
are neither masculine nor feminine, it is of the neuter 
gender. 

If it has the nature by which it may be applied to 
males and females alike, that is, common in its appli- 
cation, such nature is called common gender. 

Examples of Masculine Gender: Man, boy, drake, 
gander. 

Examples of Feminine Gender: Woman, girl, duck, 
goose. 

Examples of Neuter Gmider: Book, bench, glass, 
stone. 

Examples of Common Gender: Friend, relative, 
student. 

The lack of accuracy, and, indeed, common sense, 
in the treatment of gender by some authors has been 
surprising. 



38 



Eastman's Practical Grammar 



For example, one author says that gender is sex. 

Now sinr.e nouns have gender, therefore nouns 
have sex; then we have male nouns and female nouns. 
It is no wonder that they have multiplied. 

Another author, or perhaps several, trying to dis- 
pense with the very necessary common gender, and 
have only three, has denned gender as a modification 
that denotes sex; the masculine denoting the male sex, 
the feminine denoting the female sex, and the neuter 
denoting a want of sex. 

In the name of reason how could it denote sex by 
denoting a want of sex? By the same masterly (?) reason- 
ing they omit the common gender. 

The fact is, the noun shows four things with re- 
gard to sex; either that it will apoly to a male, to a fe- 
male, to neither, or is common in its application to 
either; hence the four genders. 

Then urethra ways of forming the masculine and 
feminine genders; by different words, by different end- 
ings, and by different words placed 1> fore or after the 
principal word. 



Examples 


,,J ({',['■ 


WOTdsi 




i »<• 


i. wtinint 


»/n-. ii (mi. 


l\ in ini M 


Bachelor 


maid. 


horse, 


mare. 


boy, 


girl. 


husband, 


wife. 


bridegroom, 


bride. 


king. 


queen. 


brother. 


sister. 


lad. 


lass or lassie 


bull, 


cow. 


lord. 


lady. 


bullock or 


heifer. 


nephew. 


niece. 


steer. 








buck, 


doe. 


Sir. 


Madam. 


dog, 


bitch. 


sloven, 


slut. 


drake, 


duck. 


uncle, 


aunt. 


gander. 


goose. 


wizard, 


witch. 



Eastman's Practical Grammar 



39 



Examples of different endings: 




Masculine 


Feminine 


Masculine 


Feminine 


Abbot, 


abbess. 


instructor, 


instructress. 


actor. 


actress. 


Jew, 


Jewess. 


adulterer, 


adulteress, 


. lion, 


lioness. 


arbiter, 


arbitress. 


Marquis, 


Marchioness. 


baron, 


baroness: . 


Master. 


Mistress. 


benefactor, 


benefac- 
tress. 


patron, 


patroness. 


conductor, 


conductress, poet, 


poetesp. 


count. 


countess. 


priest, 


priestess. 


deacon, 


deaconess. 


prince, 


princess. 


duke, 


duchess. 


prophet, 


prophetess. 


Emperor, 


Empress. 


shepherd, 


shepherdess. 


giant, 


giantess.. 


tiger, 


tigress. 


god, 


goddess. 


sultan, 


sultana. 


governor, 


governess 


. Czar, 


Czarina. 


heir, 


heiress. 


Don, 


Donna. 


host, 


hostess. 


administrator 


, administratrix 


executor, 


executrix. 


landgrave, 


landgravine. 


testator, 


testatrix. 


margrave, 


margravine. 


hero, 


heroine. 






Examples of different words placed before or after : 


Male relative, 


female relative. 


man 


servant, 


maid servant. 


turkey-cock, 


turkey-hen. 


peacock, 


peahen. 


Examples of the common, the masculine and the 


feminine combined: 






Common 


Masculine 


Feminine 


Person, 


;. 


man, 


woman. 


child, 


* 


son, 


daughter. 


parent, 




father, 


mother. 



40 Eastman's Practical Grammar 



deer, 


buck, 


doe, 


deer. 


stag, 


hind, 


deer, 


hart, 


roe, 


sheep, 


ram, 


ewe, 


hog, 


boar, 


sow, 


fish. 


milter, 


spawner, 


fowl, 


cock, 


hen, 


goat, 


he goat, 


she goat, 


kine, 


bull, 


cow. 



3. Notes on Gender 

Some nouns which are neuter in fact, may be per- 
sonified, and in that case gender should be attributed 
according to the nature of the thing personified. 

If it has masculine attributes, it should be given 
the masculine gender; if it has feminine attributes, 
feminine gender; as, of the sun use he; of the moon, 
she; thr> ship, she-, a storm, lie, etc. 

The masculine is sometimes used to include both 
sexes, as, The heirs were not of age; The lion is fero- 
cious. 

Under tliis head may be considered such words as 
poet, author, actor, etc. These words are wrongly 
treated by many grammarians, who teach that they 
have lost (heir corresponding feminine forms; as, poet- 
ess, authoress, etc.. and are used only in the masculine. 
A rule may be ^iven for their use as follows: When a 
word implying the feminine is to be used, use the 
feminine form if the word stands alone, or nearly so; 
as, She is a poetess, or an authoress, or an actress. If, 
however, the word is to be associated with 



Eastman's Practical Grammar 41 

others in such a way as to render the feminine ineu- 
phonious, use the masculine; as, She was the leading 
poet, or author of the age. To say she was the leading 
poetess would imply that she was foremost of the poet- 
esses but not of the poets; hence poetess (or authoress) 
in such use would be not only ineuphonious, but it 
would convey the wrong idea. Use the masculine in 
such cases. 

Some nouns are masculine in form, and have no 
corresponding feminine; as, soldier, carpenter, etc. 

Some nouns are feminine in form and have no cor- 
responding masculine; as, seamstress, milliner, etc. 

Masculine or feminine pronouns often refer to the 
names of animals according as they have masculine or 
feminine attributes; as, "The bear is eager for his prey;" 
"The rabbit hides herself m the grass." 

The masculine often represents both sexes, when 
used in a generic sense; i. e., to denote a race or kind; 
as, "The horse is a noble animal;" "Man was made to 
mourn." 

The neuter pronoun, it, often refers to animals, 
and very small children, regardless of sex; as, The 
child lisps its father's name; The deer broke its leg. 

The collective noun is neuter when reference is 
made to the collection, and not to the individuals; as, 
The mob is to be dreaded for it sweeps everything be- 
fore it. 

When reference is made to the individuals, how- 
ever, it is masculine when it is composed of males, 
feminine when composed of females, and common when 
composed of both. 

Personal pronouns of the first and second persons, 
are common gender, unless they are known to refer to 



42 Eastman's Practical Grammar 



males or females; in which case they take the gender 
of their antecedents. 

Personal pronouns of the third person singular 
have distinct forms for the masculine, the feminine, 
and the neuter; as, "He is here;" "She came with 
him;" "It is very sweet." 

The personal pronoun of the third person has no 
form for the common gender in the singular. This is 
a fruitful source of error. We often hear a speaker, 
wishing to conceal the identity of the sex of the one 
spoken of. say "The one that told me said they (he or 
she) knew it to be true," making the pronoun they, 
representing more than one, refer to one only. 



4. Person 



The noun and the pronoun have the same proper- 
ties, but the noun is not inflected for person at all, while 
the personal pronoun is inflected for each grammatical 
person. 

Person is that character of a noun or pronoun 
which shows whether it represents the speaker, the one 
spoken to, or the one spoken of. 

Tin-: First Person denotes the speaker; as, "I, 
even I, Artaxerxes, the king, do make a decree," etc. 

The Second Person denotes the person or thing 
spoken to; as, Charles, come to church. 

The Third Person denotes the person or thing 
*poken of; as, Charles was at church. 

Note. A person often speaks of himself as in the third person: I am 
bc; We are friends; Mrs Johnson presfnts compliments to Mr. and Mrs. 
Tones, etc. 



Eastman's Practical Grammar 43 

5 Number 

Number is that property of a noun or pronoun 
which indicates whether one or more than one is meant. 

There are two numbers, singular and plural. 

The Singular Number denotes one thing only. 
. The Plural Number denotes more than one. 

The plural is regularly formed by adding s or 
es to the singular. 

Some nouns form their plural very irregularly; as, 
Man, men; goose, geese; ox, oxen, etc. 

Nouns ending in y preceded by a consonant, 
change yto i before adding es, as, City, cities; country, 
countries. 

A few nouns ending in/, or fe change / to v and 
add es, as, Wife, wives, knife knives; loaf, loaves. 

Most nouns in this class, however form their plu- 
rals regularly; hoof, hoofs; roof, roofs, etc. 

Most nouns ending in o, preceded by a consonant, 
add es; as. potato, potatoes; cargo, cargoes. 

Letters figures, signs, etc., form their plurals by 
adding f s. It is better to write out - such words in 
full when possible. 

Compound words without the. hyphen form their 
plurals regularly; as, cupfuls, dewdrops, cornstalks. 

Compounds that take the hyphen pluralize the 
principal part; i. e. the part modified by the rest of the 
word; as, sons-in-law, courts-martial, mocking-birds. 

Some compounds pluralize both parts of the word; 
as, man-servant, men-servants; ignis^-fatuus, ignes- 
fatui. 



44 Eastman's Practical Grammar 



The following rule seems to conform to the best 
usage, in pluralizing nouns with titles: 

In case of titles, when more than one peison have 
the same name, pluralize the name if the given name 
or initials are omitted; as, The Dr. Dunbars, The Miss 
Hacklers, etc. But if the names are given with the 
different given names or initials, pluralize the title; as, 
The Drs. W. and A. Dunbar. The Misses May and Bes- 
sie Hackler. 

If the names are different, pluralize the title; as. 
Messrs. Brown and Smith. 

Nouns from foreign languages usually retain their 
original plurals. 

(a) Nouns from the Latin, ending in U8, change 
us td 

Ex. radius, racii; terminus, termini; focus, foci, 
etc. 

(b) Nouns from Latin, ending in um or on, 
change to a; as, erratum, errata; automaton, automata, 
etc. 

(e) Nouns from Latin, ending in is, change is to 
88 or idea; as, thesis, theses; ephemeris, ephemerides, 
etc. 

(d) Nouns from Latin, ending in x change to 088 
; as, index, indices; calix, calices, etc. 

Shnu nun, is hare two plurals irith different mean- 
ing. 

„ ., 1 brothers, (in family). 

Brothers, \ 

I brethren; (in church). 

,, 1 cannons, (separate guns). 

( annon, 

I cannon. ( pieces ot artillery, 

I flies, blacksmiths' instruments for 

Die cutting screws). 

I dice, (cubes use for gaming). 



Eastman's Practical Grammar 45 



t^-i. j fishes, (in number). 

* lsn ' I fish, (in quantity). 

Genius, i geniuses, (men of genius) . 

{ genii, (spirits). 

Head j heads, (parts of the body). 

[ head, (of cattle). 

Horse S horses, (animals). 

\ horse, (mounted soldiers). 

Inelex J indexes, (in books). 

( indices, (algebraic characters) . 

p ennv f pennies, (pieces of money). 

( pence, (expression of value). 

Some nouns have two plurals with the same mean- 
ing: Bandit, banditti or bandits; Cherub, cherubim or 
cherubs; Encomium, encomia or encomiums; Formula, 
formulae or formulas. 



6. Notes on Number. 

Some nouns have no singular; as, Tongs, gallows, 
pants. 

Some nouns have no plural; as, Molasses, gold, 
purity. 

Names of substances are singular, but they may be 
pluralized when the different kinds or divisions are 
meant; as, I examined his wines, his steels; He has 
too many irons in the fire; He has sailed on many 
waters. 

Some nouns have the same form for both numbers; 
as, One deer, ten deer; also sheep, swine, etc. 



46 Eastman's Practical Grammar 



7 Definitions 



Inflection is the changing of the form of a word. 

Gender is the property a noun or pronoun has 
with regard to sex.- 

Masculine Gender is that character of a noun or 
pronoun which implies the male se.\. 

Feminine Gender is that character of a noun or a 
pronoun which implies the female sex. 

The Neuter Gender is the character of a noun or 
pronoun which shows it to be c >mmon, in its applica- 
tion, to botli sexes. 

PERSON is that character of a noun or a pronoun 
which shows whether it represents the speaker, the 
person or thing spoken to, or the person or thing 
spoken of. 

The First Person is the property which shows 
that the speak* r is meant. 

The Second Person is the property which sh >ws 
that the one spoken to is meant. 

The Third Person is the property which shows 
that the person or thing spoken <>ms meant. 

NUMBER is that property of a noun or pronoun 
which shows whether one, or more than one, is meant. 

The Singular Number is the property of a noun or 

pronoun that shows that only one is meant. 

The Plural Number is the property of a noun or 

pron i hi' m >iv than one are meant. 

EXERCISE I. 

Point out the nouns and pronouns and name the 
classes to which tl ey bt long: 

Tell the ami, if masculine or feminine. 

give the opposite gender form. Tell the number, giv- 
ing the opposite number form: also cell the person. 

1. McKinley was brutal!) ited. -• ^ Vt ' 



Eastman's Practical Grammar 47 

never know ourselves. 3. You are my friends. 4. 
I live at the terminus of the road. 5. James killed a 
buck in a thicket, 6. We have sufncent data to pro- 
ceed. 7. Rome was saved by the cackling of geese. 
8. This was an unkind cut. 9. Each protected his 
own home. 10. ' 'Many are called but few are chosen . ' ' 
11. The landlady presented her bill. 12. The molas- 
ses is scorched and this injures its taste. 13. The 
gentlemen wore black pants. 14. Who said, "I would 
rathe** be right than president?" 15. The horse is a 
friend that seldom disobeys his master. 16. The sun 
drives his golden chariot across the heavens. 17. The 
moon smiles in her beauty. 18. The city was in 
flames. 19. That calf has lost its mother. 20. The 
ignis-f atuus has been a source of fright to the ignorant 
people, who thought it an apparition. 

REVIEW 1. 

1. What is gender? 2. Tke masculine? 3. The 
feminine? 4. The neuter? 5. The common? 6. 
What is person? 7. The first person? 8. The sec- 
ond? 9. The third? 10. What is number? 11. The 
singular number? 12. The plural number? 13. How 
many ways of distinguishing between the masculine and 
the feminine? What are they? 14. How may neuter 
nouns have gender ascribed to them? 15. How may the 
masculine be made to include both sexes? 16. What 
is taught with reference to such words as poet, author, 
actor, etc., used for both sexes? 17. Give some nouns 
that are masculine only. 18. Feminine only. 19. 
Give the substance of notes on gender. 20. Ex- 
plain the generic use of nouns. 21. How is the gen- 
der of small children and animals often considered? 
22. What pronoun then refers to them? 23. Explain 
how the gender of the collective noun is treated. .24 



48 Eastman's Practical Grammar 

What is the gender of the personal pronouns of the first 
and second person? 25. What gender form is want- 
ing in third person singular of personal pronouns? 26. 
Explain the error to which this often leads. 27. How 
is the plural number regularly formed? 28. Illustrate 
some irregular formations. 29. How form the plural 
of nouns ending in y, in/, or/e? 30. Latin deriviation 
in a? in us? in is? in xl 31. How form the plural of 
letters, figures, etc? 32. Is there a better way? 33. 
How form the plural of compound words? 34. How 
pluralize in case of titles? 35. Give the list of double 
plurals. 36. Give an example of a noun which has no 
plural. 37. No singular. ?>8. When may the names 
of substances be pluralized? 39. Give some noun 
which has the same form for both numbers. 

To The Tp.achp.r — Take your time on this review and work it up 
thoroughly. Divide into a> many lessons as may be necessary. 



Eastman's Practical Grammar 



49 



8. Case. 



Case is that property of a noun or pronoun which 
shows its relation to other words. 



Nominative, 



Objective. 



Subject, 

Predicate after an intransitive verb, 

Predicate after an intransitive participle, 

Independent by address, 

Independent by exclamation, 

Independent by pleonasm , 

Absolute. 



Ownership, Authorship, 
Origin, and Kind. 



Obj. of a transitive verb, 

Obj. of a transitive participle, 

Obj of a preposition, 

Indirect object or Eng. dative. 

Object subject of an infinitive, 

Object predicate after infinitive 

Complement, 

Independent, 

Adverbial, 

Cognate 



The noun is not completely inflected for case; that 
is, it has not a different form for each case. The nom- 
inative and objective are alike in form; their difference 
being in construction. 



50 Eastman's Practical Grammar 



The possessive is formed by adding 's to most 
nouns in the singular, and the (') alone to plural nouns 
ending in "s". 

If a noun in the singular number contains as many 
as two hissing sounds, its possessive case is formed by 
adding the (') only; as, Moses' law. 

Some nouns in the singular that have but one hiss- 
ing sound, (aspirate), if it be at the last, take the (') 
only; as, Barnes' History. This is a matter of taste. 

The personal pronoun, and the ielative and inter- 
rogative, who, are thoroughly inflected for case. 



9. The Nominative Case. 

The Nominative Case has seven constructions: 
1st. It may be the subject of the verb, as ex- 
plained on a previous page. 

2nd. It may come after the copula to complete the 
predicate; as, It is Father. I am the wan, etc. 

3rd. It may be used as a complement after a par- 
ticiple, thus completing an assumed predicate, instead 
of an asserted predicate. Take the following: "I had 
no thought that it was John." Here John is nomina- 
tive predicate after the copula was. Again, "I had 
no thought of its being John." Here the copula verb 
is converted into a participle, but the word John bears 
the same relation as before, that of nominative predi- 
cate. Intransitive verbs take this construction. 
4th. It may be used independently: 
fa) By address; as, Mary, bring me some water. 

(b) By exclamation; ss, 0, Father! Father! 

(c) /.'.'/ pleoniasm; as, "John, he was a piper's 
son." 



Eastman's Practical Grammar 51 

(d) Absolute with a participle; as, The general 
being wounded, the army retreated. 

The first of the group, address, may be explained 
as follows: When we speak to anyone or anything and 
call the name, such name is put in the nominative case 
independent; as, My friends, I must leave you. 

The nominative independent by exclamation, is the 
use of a noun as an exclamation. We may use a noun 
as an exclamation and as an address, at the same time. 
In such case, it should be considered, according to the 
leading idea as independent by address, or by exclama- 
tion. 

The nominative independent by pleonasm is, as the 
name suggests, a superfluity. It is the use of a noun 
and a pronoun together, either of which would be the 
subject if used alone, but for poetic measure, or for 
emphasis, both are used and the pronoun becomes the 
subject; leaving the noun independent in] its construc- 
tion. "The night, it was dark and the wind, it was 
high;" The prisoner at the bar, he is as innocent as you. 

Note. To understand the nominative absolute, and also the nomina" 
tive predicate after an intransitive participle, it is necessary that there be 
given here some explanation of the participle: 

We have seen that the verb expresses action, being 
or state. We have further seen that it makes an as- 
sertion about the subject. The verb thus used is called 
the finite verb. 

The participle is a kind of "hybrid" or "cross" be- 
tween the finite verb and the adjective, or the finite 
verb and the noun; partaking of the nature of both at 
once. 

The imperfect participle always ends in "ing,"and 
the perfect participle, if regular, ends in ed. 



52 Eastman's Practical Grammar 

The finite verb asserts a predication, the participle 
merely assumes a predication. In, " The general being 
wounded, the army retreated," two predications are 
made; one, that the general was wounded; the other, 
that the army retreated; but the first of these is not 
asserted, as the general ivas wounded, but assumed, 
taken for granted. 

The nominative absolute is the use of a noun or 
pronoun with a participle, to express an additional, as- 
sumed predication, implying an attendant circumstance; 
as, My Father arriving, the trouble was over. 



10. The Possessive Case 

The Possessive Case denotes: 

(a) Possession; as, Father's horse; My ball. 

(b) Authorship; as, Webster's Dictionary. 

(c) Origin; as. Mariotte's law; The moon's rays. 

(d) Kind; as. Men's hats; I sell boy's shoes and 



suits. 



11. The Objective Case 

Tin noun may be in the objective ease in ten d[tf> 
ways: 

(a) The Object of a Transitive Verb is that 
use of a noun or pronoun which represents the object 
as receiving the act as exerted by the subject; as, Mary 
writes a letter; They burned Moscow; She studies 
Grammar. 



Eastman's Practical Grammar 53 



(b) The Object of a Transitive Participle is 
the object of an assumed predication, instead of an as- 
serted one; as, I found my friend writing a letter', 
Were the citizens wrong in burning Moscow? 

(c) The Object of a Preposition is the object of 
a relation instead of an action. It is the word following 
the preposition, which forms the base of the phrase; as; 
He walked into the garden; A rose between two thorns; 
In the house; Under the table. 

(d) The Indirect Object has been wrongly sup- 
posed by some authors, to be the object of the preposi- 
tion to or for understood. A comparison of our lan- 
guage with other languages will satisfy any one that it 
is merely a dative. We may call it the English Dative. 

The Indirect Object or English Dative is that 
use of a noun or pronoun after verbs of giving* which 
shows the action indirectly received. It is placed be- 
fore the direct object in the same sentence. If we 
move this object from before the direct object to a place 
after it, the preposition to or for must be used. 

Examples: Please give me your name. Changed, 
Give your name to me. Pass John the bread. Chang- 
ing the position, Pass the bread to John. Write him a 
letter; Write a letter to him. Solve me this problem; 
Solve this problem for me. When placed after the 
direct object, it is not an indirect object or dative but 
the direct object of a preposition. 

*The word dative comes from the Latin word dare The third 
person singular of this Laiin word is DAT. Hence dativk. This Latin 
words means "he gives." Hence, nouns and pronouns after verbs of giv- 
ing are in the dative case, or are indirect objects. By giving we mean aU 
such words as have this signification. '-Pass John the bread", means 
give John the bread, in a sense, so with, "write me a letter", give me, 
etc. 



54 Eastman's Practical Grammar 



The Objective Complement completes the pred- 
icate and refers to the same person or thing as the ob- 
ject. In the two sentences: "They made the wall 
white", They whitened the wall", the meaning is the 
same. Now placing the two sentences together and 

lhey made the wall white, 
r I hey whitened the wall. 

taking away the same words from both, it leaves 
whitened=made white. 

"White here completes the verb made, as they 
did not make the wall, but "madewhite" or"whitened" 
it. White, here, is a complement. 

Ncnms an also used as complements, as well as 
adji dives. 

Take the sentences, They made Victoria queen, and, 
They crowned Victoria. Taking away the same words 
from both sentences, we have modi queen equal to 
crowned. Queen here is a complement of made, 
and since it refers to the same person (Victoria) as the 
object it is an Objective Cask COMPLEMENT. 

The Objective Case Subject of an Infinitive is 
the noun or pronoun used as the subject of an infini- 
tive, which is another form of assumed predication; 
unlike the participle, in that it has a different form, 
being merely the root form of the verb preceded by 
the word to expressed or understood; as, to write, to 
eat, to walk, etc. It makes an implied predication. 

Examples of objective subject: 

He desired Labienus to occupy the hill. 

He ordered his servant to saddle the horse. 

In the sentence, "He desired that his son should be 
a lawyer." we see from what has already been 



Eastman's Practical Grammar 55 

taught, that lawyer is nominative predicate, beeause it 
is in the predicate and refers to the same thing as the 
subject, son. 

In the sentence, "He desires his son to be a law- 
yer," taking away the words common to both sentences, 
and the conjunction, that, we find that lawyer is still 
in the predicate; but because the subject of the infini- 
tive verb, (son) is objective, lawyer is also objective 
and is The Objective Predicate. 

The Objective Independent is merely the use of 
the pronoun me, as an exclamation; as, 0, me! Ah 
me! Me miserable! 

When a noun is used as an adverb to tell when, 
where, to what extent, etc. , it is put in the Objective 
Case Adverbial; as, He went home; He came yester- 
day; I live ten miles from the city; The river rose two 
feet. 

The old plan of trying to supply prepositions in 
such constructions has gone out of use. 

The Cognate Objective is the use of a noun with 
a verb of kindred signification; as, He ran a race; I 
have fought the good fight; He must die the death. In 
such a construction, a verb that is intransitive by na- 
ture becomes transitive by use. 



12. Notes on Case. 

Nouns and pronouns of the third person are in the 
nominative case when used as exclamations; as, mis- 
ery! must I lose that too? thou! etc. 

When the first person is used as an exclamation, it 
is in the objective case; as, Ah me! 



56 Eastman* s Practical Grammar 

POSSESSIVE. 

Compounds take the possessive sign at the last; as, 
Son-in-law's book. 

When two or more nouns together are in the pos- 
sessive, add the sign to each, if the possession is not 
common; if it is common add the sign to the last only. 
Mary's and Susan's father (not sisters). Mary and 
Susan's father (sisters). Caudle and Shelby's store. 
Banister's {store understood) and Davenport's store. 

A possessive followed immediately by a preposi- 
tional phrase, does not take the sign, but it is placed 
upon the object of the preposition; as, The Secretary 
of State's business; The Queen of England's death. 

The adjective else takes the sign in such express, 
ions as, Do not mind anyone else's business. 

The sign is not used with personal and relative pro- 
nouns, but it is used with some adjective pronouns; as, 
One's opportunity; Another's offense. 

The name of the object possessed is often under- 
stood: as. I went to my brother's (home). 

Such expressions as, A friend of mine, has friends 
understcod; as, A friend of my friends; but such ex- 
pressions as, That father of mine is idiomatic, we 
would not say, That father of my fathers. 

In case of apposition, the appositive generally 
takes the sign. 



13. Apposition 



A noun or pronoun used to explain another noun or 
pronoun, or in any way to identify it, must be in the 



Eastman's Practical Grammar 57 

same case as the word modified. Such a noun or pro- 
noun is called an appositive, 

EXAMPLES. 

Nominative, Wilson, the jeweler, calls. 
Possessive, His majesty, the King's, decree. 
Objective. I called on Wilson, the jeweler. 
Declension: Nouns are declined to denote num- 
ber and case. 

Singular. Plural. 

Nom. Boy, Boys, 

Pos. boy's, boys', 

Obj. boy, boys. 

Singular. Plural. 

Nom. Mary, (None) 

Pos. Mary's, 
Obj. Mary. 



14. Definitions 



A Property of a part of speech is whatever be- 
longs to it. 

Inflection is the change of form a word under- 
goes on account of some property. 

A Noun is a name. 

Gender is the property of a noun or pronoun that 
has reference to sex. 

The Masculine Gender is the property a noun or 
pronoun has, to denote the male sex. 

The Feminine Gender is the property a noun or 
a pronoun has, to denote the female sex. 



58 Eastman's Practical Grammar 

The Neuter Gender is the property that a noun 
or a pronoun has, to be applied to that which is neithe r 
male nor female. 

The Common Gender is the property a noun or a 
pronoun has that makes its application common to both 
sexes. 

Person is the property of a noun or pronoun that 
shows whether the speaker, the person or thing spok- 
en to, or the person or thing spoken of, is meant. 

The First Person is the property that denotes the 
speaker. 

The Second Person is the property that denotes 
the one spoken to. 

The Third Person is the property that denotes 
the one spoken of. 

Number is the property of a noun or pronoun that 
shows whether one, or more than one, is meant. 

The Singular Number is the form of a noun or a 
pronoun that denotes one only. 

The PLURAL NuMBEB is the form of a noun or a 
pronoun which denotes more than one. 

Case is that property of a noun or pronoun that 
shows its relation to other words in the sentence. 

The Nominative Case is the property that repre- 
sents the noun or pronoun as the subject, or the pred- 
icate, (the complement) or as having an independent 
construction. 

The Nominative Subject is the use of the noun 
or pronoun as the subject of a sentence. 

The Nominative Predicate is that use of the 
noun or pronoun that makes it the complement of eith- 
er an assumed, or an asserted predicate. 



Eastman's Practical Grammar 59 

The Nominative Independent is that use of a 
noun or pronoun that renders it independent in con- 
struction; such as, address, exclamation, and pleonasm. 

The Nominative Absolute is the use of a noun 
or a pronoun with a participle, so as to express (an at- 
tendant circumstance. 

The Possessive Case is used to denote ownership, 
authorship, origin, or kind. 

The Objective Case is used for the most part, to 
denote the object of an action or a relation. 

The Object of a Transitive Verb or a Partici- 
ple is the noun or pronoun which denotes that to which 
the act is done. 

The Object of a Preposition is a noun or pro- 
noun that follows the preposition as the base of the 
phrase. 

The Indirect Object or English Dative is the 
noun or pronoun used to show that to or for which 
something is done, or to be done,, without the use of 
a preposition. 

The Objective Complement is the noun or pro- 
noun used to complete the predicate, and represent the 
same person or thing as the object. 

The Objective Subject is -the use of a noun or 
pronoun as the subject of an infinitive. 

The Objective Predicate is a noun or pronoun 
used after an intransitive infinitive to refer to the 
same person or thing as the objective subject before 
it. 

The Objective Independent is the pronoun me 
used as an exclamation. 

The Objective Adverbial is a ndun or pronoun 
used as an adverb. ' ■ 



60 Eastman's Practical Grammar 

The Cognate Object is the use of an object with 
a verb of kindred signification. 

EXERCISE IN GENDER II. 

Tell the gender of the following nouns and pronouns, 
and correct such errors as occur: 

1. She was the administrator of the estate. 2. The 
milter deposits the eggs, but the spawner assists her 
to guard them. 8. The gobbler peafowl is proud of his 
tail. 4. The sun shines in her glory. 5. They were 
brothers in the church. 6. The lion roars in her an- 
ger. 7. A friend is known by their actions. (The 
common noun so used should be followed by the mas- 
culine pronoun, A friend is known by his, etc.) 

EXERCISE IN NUMBER III. 

Tell the number, and correct the errors of the f 61- 
Unving nouns and pronoun&t and give reasons: 

1. It is ten mile to town. 2. That well is forty 
foot deep. 3. That pole is ten foot high. 4. That is 
a thirty-foot rope. (Correct; when a noun preceded by 
a numeral is used as an adjective, it must be in the 
singular.) 5. This is a ten-inch globe. 6. Many 
citys lie in ruins in the old world. 7. A bushel of po- 
tatos. 8. These molasses are excellent. 9. This is the 
best pant in the market. 10. Let us swap knifes. 
11. Dot your "is" and cross your "te;" change your 

■ s to -8 and include all in parenthesises. 12. They 
are brothers in the church. 13. Go to the blacksmith 
and borrow Ins dice to cut those screws. 14. He 
bought a wagon load of fishes. 15. Take two spoons 
full of this mixture. 16. Bring two arms full of wood. 

17. I have two son-in-laws. 18. The Drs. Johnson. 



Eastman 's Practical Grammar 61 



EXERCISE IN CASE IV. 



1. Gentlenen of the Jury: I am the prisoners' 
defence. You cannot consider him a guilty man, with 
the proofs before you. mercy! Has Justice fled? 
He has lived a Christian life, but is tried this day for 
his life. Give us justice. His wife, she could not 
have been his accomplice. But I want you to be the 
judges, etc. 2. The provisions exhausted, we 
marched to the next town. 3. Which do you prefer, 
Websters' or Worcesters* dictionary? 4. Perhaps 
they are wolves in sheep's clothing. 5. My son's- in- 
laws advice, 6. 0, that mother-in-law of mine. 7. 
Mary's and Ellen's book. (Both own one book.) 8. 
Mary and Susan's mother (not sisters). 9. Paul's the 
apostles letters, 10. The Duke's of Buckinghams 
opinion. 11. Johnson sells mens' hats. 12. The 
moons' pale light. 

PARSING EXERCISE V. 

Parse all the nouns and pronouns, giving their 
classes and properties: 
Order of Parsing: 

Name and class, 

Gender, 

Person, 

Number, 

Case. 

Construction. 
Model,— Subject and Object: 
"John caught a rat in the trap". 
John is a proper noun, masculine gender, third 



62 Eastman's Practical Grammar 

person singular number, and in the nominative case, 
the subject of caught. 

Rat is a common noun, common gender, third 
person, singular number, in the objective case, the 
object of caught. 

Trap is a common noun, neuter gender, third 
person, singular number, and objective case, object of 
the preposition in. 

EXAMPLES. 

John threw the ball into the garden; Lillie broke 
her doll; He tore the leaf from his book. 

Model , — Possess ive case. 

"Henry's father lost his friend's bridle." 

Henry's is a proper noun, masculine ge.ider, 
third person, singular number, and in the possessive 
case modifying the noun father. 

His is a personal pronoun, masculine gender, 
third person singular number, possessive case, mod if y- 
mgfriend8. 

Friend's is a common noun, common gender, 
third person, singular number, in the possessive cas e, 
modifying bridte. 

EXAMPLES. 

My brother heard of his loss yesterday; I bought 
my suit at Davenport's (store); Amelia's doll lies in 
Jane's cradle; where is mine. 

Model, Indirect Object: 

"Write me a letter from home." 

Me is a personal pronoun, common gender, 
third person, singular number, in the objective case, 
indirect object of write. 



Eastman's Practical Grammar 63 



EXAMPLES. 

Lend me your ears; Son, give me thy heart; I 
wrote John a long letter; Please pass the butter to 
Willie (not indirect object) ; Please pass Willie the but- 
ter. 

M parsing the other objectives, parse as above, but 
give the case as follows: If the complement, say, 
it is in the objective case, the complement of such a 
verb'. If a subject of an infinitive, say, objective case, 
subject of the infinitive, etc. If it is objective predi- 
cate, say, objective case, predicate after the infinitive. 
If independent say, objective independent by exclama- 
tion. If adverbial, say, objective adverbial, modifying- 
etc. If cognate, say, objective cognate with such and 
such verb. 

Of the nominative independent, parse as any nom- 
inative but saying nominative independent by address, 
exclamation, pleonasm; or nominative absolute with the 
participle, etc. If a nominative predicate, say, nom- 
inative predicate after the intransitive verb. 

Classify the following nouns and pronouns: 
1. Caesar was a general and statesman but 
he lost his life through treachery. 2. The 
committee was appointed to attend to the matter, 
but the question was still unsettled; and another 
committee put forth their best efforts, and all 
was adjusted by their agreeing among themselves, etc. 
3. His goodness hurts him. 4. Chopping is tiresome 
work. 5. Gold is more precious than silver. 6. Co- 
lumbus discovered America. 7. The United States 
Congress adjourned, (Collective proper noun) . 8. I 
did not dream of its being John. 9. "The boy, 
where was he?" 10. "Father forgive them." 11. 
0, Heaven! my bleeding country save. 12. "Give me 



64 Eastman's Practical Grammar 

a home in the far distant West." 13. I saw Esau 
kissing Kate. 14. We made McKinley president. 15. 
They called him a fool. 16. We wanted him to be a 
gentleman. 17. The river is a mile wide; I crossed it 
yesterday. 18. Sleep the sleep that knows no waking. 
19. "In my Father's house are many mansions." 

REVIEW QUESTIONS. 2. 

1. What is case? 2. The nominative? 3. The 
possessive? 4. The objective? 5. Illustrate the 
nominative subject. 6. Define and illustrate the nom- 
inative predicate, nominative independent by address, 
by exclamation, by pleonasm; the nominative absolute. 
7. Define the possessive case. 8- Illustrate the pos- 
sessive denoting (a) possession, (b) authorship, (c) 
origin, (d) kind. 9. How is the possessive formed in 
the singular? The plural? 10. How in case of sev- 
eral nouns denoting possession not common? 11. In 
compounds? 12. In appositives? 13. In case a pos- 
sessive is followed immediately by a prepositional 
phrase? U. Define and illustrate the object of a 
transitive verb; of a preposition. 15. The indirect 
object or English dative. 16. The objective comple- 
ment. 17. The objective subject; predicate. 18. 
The objective adverbial; independent. 19. The cog- 
nate object. 



Eastman's Practical Grammar 65 



15. Adjectives. 



1 Positive degree, 
Qualifying < Comparative degree, 
I. Superlative degree. 



ADJECTIVES ^ Descriptive < Compound, 
' I Participial. 

Demonstrative. 
Distributive, 



I Indefinite. 
Limiting /Numeral.. \ Cardinal, 

Mulptiplicative. 



icle. ... | Definite— "the 1 ' , 

I Indefinite— "a" or "an ' 

As has been shown in Part I of this work, an ad- 
jective is a word used to qualify a noun or a pronoun, 
or to limit its application. 

Any word placed with the noun to make one know 
more about the thing represented by the noun, is an 
adjective. When I speak the word "apple," you form 
an idea of the object, but when I say Red apple, you 
know still more; and, Large red apple still more. 

Sometimes the additional meaning is very obscure; 
as, "Even John could solve that problem." Here 
even conveys the idea of John that he is no very 
great mathematician. If a word conveys any additional 
meaning to a noun or pronoun, be it much or little, 
such a word is an adjective- 

A Qualifying Adjective is used to express the 
quality of a thing. 

A Descriptive Adjective is used to describe 



66 Eastman's Practical Grammar 



without expressing quality; as, A seafaring man; A 
ivillow tree; French soldiers. 

The Limiting Adjective does not describe, but 
merely limits the application of the noun. When I say 
"this knife" I limit the application of knife to this 
particular knife and no other. 



16. Comparison. 



The qualifying adjective is inflected for comparison 
regularly as follows: Words of one syllable, and some 
dissyllables, add er for the comparative and est 
for the superlative. Nouns ending in e drop the 
e on receiving a suffix beginning with a vowel, is a 
rule of spelling; hence an adjective ending in e 
drops the e before adding cr and est; as, brave, 
brav-er, brav-est. 

Some adjectives prefix more or most for com- 
parison ascending, and less or least for compar- 
ison descending; as, graceful, more graceful, most 
graceful; or. graceful, less graceful, least graceful. 

17. Notes on Qualifying and 
Descriptive Adjectives. 

Some adjectives are derived from proper nouns, 
and are called proper adjectives. 

A slight degree of qualitv is expressed by adding 
ish or y or by prefixing rather, somewhat, etc.; as, blu- 
ish, salty, rather large, somewhat handsome. 

Some adjectives have a superlative signification and 
hence, are not compared; as, supreme, universal, etc. 



Eastman's Practical Grammar 67 

Some adjectives that have a superlative meaning 
are compared because they are used to imply, not that 
the object has the quality in full, but only approxi- 
mates it; as, perfect, white, black, round, thorough, etc. 

Sometimes nouns are used as adjectives; as, A gold 
ring. 

Some adjectives are formed from nouns by the 
addition of like or ly; as, Godlike, kingly, etc. 

A participle placed immediately before the word it 
modifies loses its verb nature to some extent, and be- 
comes a participial adjective; as, The rising sun. 

A superlative is sometimes used without a compari- 
son with anything else, but merely to express a great 
degree of quality. It may then be called an absolute 
superlative. 



18. Cautions. 



1. Avoid double comparison; as, He is more wiser. 

2. Avoid the erroneous use of "other" with com- 
paratives and superlatives. Solomon was wiser than 
any man, means that he was wiser than himself or that 
he was not a man. "The serpent was more subtile than 
any beast of the field", means that he was not a beast 
of the field. Had he been a beast of the field it should 
have been, "The serpent was more subtile than any 
other beast of the field." Solomon was the wisest of 
all other men, is wrong, as he was not of other men. 
Solomon was the wisest of men, or the wisest man. 

3. Do not use adjectives for adverbs; as, I feel 
badly. 

Do not make adjectives modify the wrong word; 
as, Have you any gray ladies' gloves. 



68 Eastman's Practical Grammar 

EXERCISE V. 

Correct the errors by the above principles: 

1. This was the most unkindest cut of all. 2. 
The horse is more stronger than man. 3. Washington 
was more patriotic than any man. 4. Mathematics 
is the most fascinating of all other sciences. 5. They 
arrived safely. 6. The rose smells sweetly. 7. The 
air looks coldly. 8. I want a black spool of thread. 
9. Give me a hot cup of coffee. 



19. Notes on the Limiting 
Adjectives 

This: and these refer to something near the speaker, 
that and those to something remote; as, this is my ball, 
that is yours. 

Also: This and these refer to the last mentioned of 
two things; that and those to the first mentioned; as, 
Both poverty and wealth are temptations: this excites 
pride, that discontent. 

Fore has the comparsion former, foremost or first, 
although the for mer and first are limiting adjectives 
which generally are without comparsion. Also latter 
is a comparative of late— superlative last. 

Each, every, cither, neither, such a, many a, etc., 
followed by nouns, pronouns, and verbs in the singu- 
lar, as, Every blade of grass, every shrub, and every 
tree was robbed of its vitality. 

Either means one of two; any, more than two. 
So with neither and none. 

Other, like this and. that, is inflected for number. 



Eastman's Practical Grammar 69 

Few and little have very different meanings, ac- 
cording as they are used with or without the article a. 
Example: He acted so badly that he had few friends; 
You will find, by aski \g, that he has a few friends. 

The three first pages would mean that the book has 
more than one first page. Say, the first three. The 
ordinal must precede the cardinal. 



20. The Article. 

A, an, and the are adjectives and belong to a class 
known as the article. 

A or an are contractions of the old word ane. 
When used before a vowel sound, the e only is 
dropped; but when used before a consonant sound n 
and e are both dropped. Hence, use a before 
consonants, and an before vowels. 

A or an modifies a noun in the singular number 
only. 

The may be used before nouns either singular or 
plural. 

Because a or an refers to no particular thing, but 
is taken in an indefinite sense, it is called the indefinite 
article. 

The is called the definite article because it points 
out some particular thing. 

Notes on the article : 

The is an adverb when used with correlatives ; 
as, The more we talk, the more we find to say. 

A is sometimes a preposition ; as, He drove the 
team afield, i. e., into the field. 



70 Eastman's Practical Grammar 

When it is desired to distribute the qualities be- 
longing to the different things, we should repeat the 
article; as, A white and black cow means a spotted cow; 
but a white and a black cow means two cows; one white 
and the other black. 

CAUTIONS: 

1. Do not use a before vowel sounds, and an 
before consonant sounds. 

2. Do not use a before a generic term; as, A 
lion is the king of beasts. 

3. Avoid using the pronoun them for the adjective 
those. 

4. Avoid using this here and that there for this 
and thai. 

5. Avoid placing the cardinal before the ordinal 
in such expressions as the three first. 

6. Avoid the omission of the article when needed; 
as, A large and small man. 

7. Avoid using a few, etc., tot few, etc. 

8. Avoid a plural adjective before a singular noun. 
Correct these errors: 

1. Envy and malice are evils; this causes us to 
covet, that to hate. 2. A ink stand. 3. A hour. 
(h is silent.) 4. A horse is the noblest of all other 
animals. 5. Them marbles are mine. 6. Those mo- 
lasses are bright and clear. 7. This here line is par- 
allel to that there line. 8. You may gather the three 
first rows, and I will take the two last ones. 9. A red 
and black flag waved over the fort, (two flags.) 10. 
He has been doing so well that he has little money. 
11. Every man were killed. 



Eastman's Practical Grammar 71 

EXERCISE. VI. 

Classify aud parse all the nouns, pronouns, and 
adjectives; giving the properties of the nouns, and com- 
paring the qualifying adjectives. 

1. I spent my happiest hours at that old spot. 2. 
A grayteh tint is seen at dawn, 3. That mule has fits. 
4. Everything that has animal life has spirit. 5. 
Many people went to the baptism of John. 6. The 
first man takes nine apples. 7. She was a most beau- 
tiful woman. 

REVIEW QUESTIONS 3. 

1. Define every term in the diagram on page 65. 
2. Give the substance of the notes on the qualifying 
adjective, the teacher aiding your memory at the be- 
ginning of each. 3. Also give the notes on the limit- 
ing adjective in the same way. 



21. The Pronoun. 

Personal, J Simple, 



Compound . 



Relative, } g^,. 



PRONOUNS < Interrogative, 



Demonstrative, 
Indefinite, 
, Distributive. ( _ 
1 ' w™«. J Cardinal, 

Ordinal. 



72 Eastman's Practical Grammar 



A Pronoun is a word used instead of a noun. 



DECLENSION. 
Common Form 
Simple Personal 
FIRST PERSON. 

Singular Plural 

Norn. I, Nom. We, 
Pos. My or Mine, Pos. Our or Ours, 

Obj. Me. Obj. Us. 

SECOND PERSON. 

Singular Plural 

Nom. You, Nom. You, 

Pos. Your or Yours, Pos. Your or Yours, 

Obj. You. 06/. You. 

THIRD PERSON— Mainline and Feminine. 
Singular Plural 



Masculine Feminine Masculine or Feminine 

Nom. He, She, Nom. They, 

Pos. His, Her or Hers, Pos. Their or Theirs, 

Obj. Him. Her. Obj. Them. 

THIRD PERSON— Nevtn: 

Singular Plural 

Nom. It, Nom. They, 

Pos. Its, Pos. Their or Theirs, 

Ofiy. It. Obj. Them, 



Eastman's Practical Grammar 73 

Add self or selves to the possessive case of 
the first and second person, and to the objective case of 
the third, for the compound personal pronouns. These 
have the nominative and objective cases only, which 
arealike. Myself, yourself, himself, themselves, 
etc. 



22. Relative Pronouns. 

A Relative Pronoun is a pronoun which intro- 
duces a subordinate clause and relates to an antecedent 
in such a way as to connect this clause to the leading or 
principal proposition. In the sentence, "The man who 
steals cannot be trusted, " who stands for the word 
man. Supplying the equivalent, we have: The man 
cannot be trusted — the man steals. 

The conjunction for might be used to connect 
them; thus, The man cannot be trusted for the man 
steals. Now for is a subordinate conjunction, and 
if the relative form be restored, we find that who 
supplies the place of the noun man, and also of the 
conjunction, and, hence, has a connecting force. Because 
of this, some authors call }'t a conjunctive pronoun; 
better name than relative pronoun, but relative is bet- 
ter known. 

The relatives are who, which, that, what, as, and 
the compounds. 

DECLENSION. 

Singular and Plural. 

Singular or Plural Singular or Plural 

Nom. Who, Nom. Which, 

Pos. Whose, Pos. Whose, 

Obj. Whom. Obj. Which. 



74 Eastman's Practical Grammar 

Singular or Plural. 
Nom. Whoever, 
Pos. Whosever, 
Obj. Whomever. 

The compound relatives are declined like the sim- 
ple relatives with the addition of ever, soever or so. 

What, that and as, are indeclinable. 

The interrogative pronouns are who, which, and 
what, when used to introduce a question. Some 
authors define them as being who, etc., "used in 
questions." This is incorrect. In the question, "Where 
is the man who stole the sheep?" who is not an 
interrogative, and yet it occurs in a question. 

The interrogatives are declined like the relatives. 
The word for which an interrogative stands is a subse- 
quent. 



23. Long Forms. 

It is interesting to notice how the pronoun is in- 
flected, or changed, when an ellipsis occurs. 

The personal pronoun in the possessive, takes the 
long form. 

Example: This child is my child (common form); 
This child is mine (elliptical). 

From this we mav give the following rule: Use 
the short form of the personal pronoun in the posses- 
sive case, when the name of the thing possessed is ex- 
pressed. 

Use the long form mine, ours, thine, yours, hers, 



Eastman's Practical Grammar 75 

theirs, etc., when the name of the thing possessed is 
understood. 

Some authors say that mine, thine, yours, etc., are 
simply nominative or objective. We think this very 
illogical, to say the least. Take the sentence, ' 'Mary, 
Charles is carrying his load and yours," can we make 
yours the object of carries, and ignore its possessive 
nature? Besides, for what does yours stand? Or, if 
you please, what is its antecedent? Evidently, Mary. 
Now supplying Mary in the place of yours, Mary would 
be the object if yours is, for we may logically inter- 
change the pronoun and its antecedent. 

Again, others say that it stands for the possessive, 
and the name of the thing possessed. 

I ask, in the name of logic, if it stands for both, as 
in the above example it would stand for Mary and the 
noun load, what gender has it, since one is neuter and 
the other feminine? 

The only logical treatment of such forms is an in- 
flection which denotes omission; as, Charles is carrying 
his load and yours (load) . 

The compound relatives are long forms used when 
the antecedent is understood— not embraced in them. 

Which changes to what when the antecedent is 
understood, not embraced in what. 

Common Form. Inflected Form* 

This is my hat, This is mine (hat) . 

We found your knife, We found yours (knife). 

You strike your child. I will strike mine (child). 

In scripture and poetry, mine and thine are used 
before the name of the object possessed, if it begins 
with a vowel; as. Thine enemies; Mine eyes; otherwise 
the long form is not used with the noun expressed. 

*In parsing the long form of the possessive say it is a long form 
used to denote that the name of the thing possessed is omitted. 



76 Eastman's Practical Grammar 

Common Form. 

The person who comes will stay. 
Take the things which he gives you. 

Inflected Formt 

(Person) Whoever comes will stay. 
Take (the things) what he gives you. 

Here we see that which is used in the first sentence 
and the antecedent is expressed, and what in the 
second, after an omitted antecedent, as who and 
whoever next preceding. 

The common way of treating what is to make it 
equivalent to that which, and treat these last two 
words instead of which. As the doctor who said he 
could not cure chills, but could throw the patient 
into fits and cure the fits; so these authors say they 
cannot parse what, but they can throw ii into that 
which and parse that which. 

Sometimes the antecedent is omitted without 
changing the form of the pronoun; as, "Who steals 
my purse steals trash." 

Which, what and that, are often pure adiectives; 
as, Which man will go? What reason did he give? 

What is sometimes an interjection; as, What! 
Dare you say that? 

As is a relative after many, such, and same, 



fParse "whai" and the compound relatives as reeling to antecedents 
understood. 



Eastman's Practical Grammar 77 

24. Adjective Pronouns. 

Adjective Pronouns, or Pronominal Adjectives, 
are mere limiting adjectives used for the nouns they 
would modify if they were expressed. 

The article and the adjective every are not pro- 
nouns. 

One and other are declined like nouns; thus, Nom. 
One, Pos. One's, Obj. One. 



25. Models for Parsing. 

The manner of parsing a personal pronoun in its 
common form was shown in a previous lesson. 

Long Form: Example; "This ball is mine." 
Mine is personal pronoun, common gender, first 
person, singular number, in the possessive case— long 
form — modifying a noun understood. 

Simple Relatives : ' 'Those who consume the 
amounts which they earn remain poor. ' ' Who is a 
relative pronoun, relating to the word those for its 
antecedent, common gender, third person, singular 
number, in the nominative case to consume. Which is 
a relative pronoun, relating to amounts for an ante- 
cedent, third person, singular number, in the objective 
case, the object of the transitive verb earn. 

'* Whoever is invited will come." Whoever \s a 
compound relative pronoun, relating to an antecedent 
understood, common gender, third person, singular 
number, nominative case to is invited. 

"Take what Comes." What is a relative pro- 



78 Eastman's Practical Grammar 

noun, a form used for which when the antecedent 
is omitted; neuter gender, third person, singular num- 
ber, nominative case to comes. 

EXERCISE VII. 

Parse the nowis, adjectives and pronouns: 
1. "Who steals my purse steals trash; it is some- 
thing — nothing; it was mine, it is his, and has been 
slave to many. ' ' 2. Whoever would be happy, must 
be honest. 3. Is he the gentleman of whom you 
spoke? 4. "Lives there a man with soul so dead, who 
never to himself hath said, This is my own, my native 
land'?" 5. What, am I to be reproved by you? 6. 
What shall I say? 7. Tell me what you want, poor man. 



26. Notes on Pronouns. 

1. Do not use they to refer to a singular noun. 
This is a common error with nouns of the common gen- 
der; as, Every student must prepare their own work. 
Always use the masculine in such case, unless the in- 
dividuals are known to be females. 

.'. Never use the compound personal pronoun ex- 
cept in a reflexi as, I hurt myself; or in em- 
phasis; as, I myself did that. 

3. "We" often refers to a singular noun, or 
stands for the name of a tingle person. It is used in 
this way by editors and public speakers. "We think 
there should be retrenchment;" We arise to address 
you, etc." 

b. "Methinks" for I think, is an idiom peculiar to 
poetry. 



Eastman's Practical Grammar 79 , 

5. ' ' What" is sometimes an adverb equivalent to 
partly. "What with work and what with worry, lam 
exhausted." 

6. Excepting the ivords "one" and "other", no 
pronoun, of whatever class, takes the sign of the possessive. 

7. Do not use objective forms of pronouns as sub- 
jects of sentences, or nominative forms as objects. 

8. Do not use the solemn style with the common 
form; as, If you will go, I will go with thee. 

9. Use "who" to refer to persons, "which" to refer 
to animals and inanimate objects, and "that" to refer to 
persons, animals or inanimate objects. 

10. "That" must always be used instead of "who" 
or "which", (a) When a clause is closely restrictive. 
(b) When there would be a repetition of who; as, Who 
who repents? (c) After adjectives in the superlative 
degree; as, He was the wisest man who (that) ever 
lived, (d) After two antecedents; one a person and the 
other an animal or an inanimate object; as, The man 
and the dog who passed (use "that"). 

11. Do not use "you all" for "you" except for 
emphasis. 

EXERCISE VIII. 

Correct the errors, giving reasons: 

1. Every teacher must attend to their own depart- 
ment. 2. An enemy is sure to get in their work. 
3. May Lula and myself study together? 4. It's 
color is too dark. 5. May him and I go? 6. Let you 
and I go. 7. They sent for Mary and I. 8. Between 
you and I, he is dishonest. 9. You may go abroad to 
get thine education. 10. Our Father which art in 
Heaven. 11. The woman and the pony which we saw 



80 Eastman's Practical Grammar 

in the circus. 12. That is the thing what I wanted. 
13. John and myself went. 14. I hurt me with that 
stick. 15. I went to you all's house. 

REVIEW QUESTIONS 4. 

1. Make the diagram, page 71, showing the divi- 
sion of the pronoun and its classes, and define each 
term; remembering that the adjective pronoun is the 
limiting adjective used for the noun; hence, the defini- 
tions applicable to the limiting adjectives are also ap- 
plicable to the pronoun of this class. Example: The 
demonstrative adjective pronoun is a demonstrative ad- 
jective used for the noun, etc. 2. Name the relative 
pronouns that are declinable and those that are inde- 
clinable. 3. Give the method of treating "mine" and 
"thine," etc. Also other methods and their objections. 
4. How are the compound relatives treated? 5. How 
is "what" treated? 6. Name some limiting adjectives 
that are never pronouns. 7. How is the compound 
personal pronoun used? 

Note on the Relatives Who, WHICH and That: Some grammari- 
ans, apparently with good reasons, call the relatives "who" and "which," 
coordinate relatives, and "that" a subordinate relative; for the 
reason that these words, who and which, introduce clauses that seem to be 
co-ordinate. For example take the sentence "The old gentleman, who is 
an eloquent speaker, then addressed the audience," etc. Such sentence, 
it is thought, is eqnivalent to, The old gentleman then addressed the au 
dience, and he is an eloquent speaker. The latter clauses being co-ordin- 
ate, the former mmt be also. 

Good usage, however, seems to authorize the use of "who" and 
"which" in subordinate clauses; it is certain, however, that the word 
"that" introduces the more re-tricttve clauses. 



Eastman's Practical Grammar 81 

28. The Verb. 



Classes with respect to use. 
THE VERB 



Classes with re.=p"ct to form. ) * rre S u ' ar \ 
* Redundant. 



Transitive, 
Intransitive. 
Copulative, 
Auxiliary. 

Regular, 
Irregular. 
Redundac 
Defective. 



We have seen in the preceding pages that: 
(a) A verb is a word that expresses action, being, 
or state. 

(6) A transitive verb by nature is one that read- 
ily admits an object. 

(c) A transitive verb by use is one that actually 
has an object. 

(d) A copulative verb does not make an assertion, 
alone, but merely connects the real predicate word 
back to the subject. 

Now an auxiliary verb is one used to help form the 
principal inflections of the verb. 

They are; Am, are, is, was, ivere, will be, ivill have 
been, have been, has been, had been, be, did, have, has, 
had, may, can, must, might, could, would, and should. 

We have also seen that there are two participles ; 
the present, . ending in "ing" and representing an act 
as present, or unfinished, at the time specified. 

The past represents action, etc., as finished at the 
time referred to. 

The past tense form, like the past participle, shows 
an action, being, or state, as finished; but, unlike the 
participle it asserts instead of assuming, the predica- 
tion; as, Washington, loved and honored by all, passed 



82 Eastman's Practical Grammar 



into Eternity. Here "loved" and "honored" assume 
the predication; bat "passed" makes an assertion. 
"Passed" is said to be in the past tense which asserts, 
action, being, or state as indefinitely past. 

The simple verb, or root form, the past tense, and 
past participle are known by all grammarians as the 
principal parts of the verb. 

PRINCIPAL PARTS OF I^OVE.* 

Present, Love, 
Past, Loved, 
Past Part. Loved. 



29. Regular Verbs. 

A Regular Verb is one that forms its past tense 
and past participle by adding "ed;" as. Walk, walked, 
walked. 

An Irregular Verb is one that does not form its 
past tense and past participle by adding "ed;"as, Eat, 
ate, eaten. 

There is an unfortunate tendency to try to dis- 
pense with this classification, and to substitute the Ger- 
man division of weak and strong verbs. We do not 
approve of such classification, but will give the ex- 
planation for the benefit of the curious: Weak verbs are 
those whose past tense and past participle end in "ed," 

*A verb ending in "c" seems only to add -'d" but we must remember 
that words of one syllable, ending in the vowel "e" drop the hnal vowel 
on receiving the suftix beginning with a vnwe!; Love, lov-e<i. 



Eastman's Practical Grammar 83 

"d", or "t". Strong verbs form the past tense and 
past participle by changing the vowel of the present; 
present, ride; past, rode; past participle, ridden. 

Redundant Verbs are those that have more than 
one form in the past tense, or past participle, or in 
both. Example: Present, bite; past, bit;, past parti- 
ciple, bitten or bit. Also present, hang; past, hung or 
hanged; past participal, hanged or hung. 

Defective Verbs have not all the modes and 
tenses. 



Mode. 



I Mode or Mood, (five in number). 

PROPERTIES OF THE VERB J IfAhe^VwoT^^ ' 

] Person, (three) , 

I Voice, (two). 



Mode is the manner in which a verb is used to ex- 
press action, being or state. 

When a verb is used to declare anything as a fact, 
or to ask a question, it is in the indicative mode; as, We 
went to Boston; Does he live here? Lives there a man 
who wouldrefuse? 

When we use the verb with the auxiliaries, "may" 
"can", or "must", "might", "could", "would", or 
"should", it is in the potential mode. May I go? It 
might rain. 

Note — When a question is asked, the subject, generally, comes 
after the verb, or between the auxiliary and the principal verb. For ex- 
ample, see the two questions above. 

When we use a verb to tell what is not, by express-, 
ing a wish for it, or a supposition about it, or, to ex- 



84 Eastman's Practical Grammar 

press future doubt or contingency, it is in the subjunc- 
tive mode. 

When we use the verb as a command, it is in the 
imperative mode. 

When we use the verb merely to name the action, 
etc., and connect with it the word "to", it is in the 
infinitive mode; as, "To eat," "to walk." 

"To" is not, in such case, a uart of the verb, nor is 
it a preposition; it is merely an idiomatic attendant. 



33. Tense. 



Tense is a form of the verb that has reference to 
time. : 

Tii : Tense primarily ref< rs to the present 

time; as, "I write", means i write no.v, at the present 
time. 

The Past Tense primarily denotes past time; as, 
"I wrote." 

E FUTURE Tense denotes future time; as, "I 
shall write." 



While it is objectionable in a work of this kind to forsake the gener- 
ally accepted definitions, ii is equally objectionable to accept the defini- 
tions commonly given, that "tense is a modification which denotes the 
time of the action, being or state." '1 be truth is, that this is the exception 
rather than the rule. In the potential mode the present nearly always 
looks to the future, while the past is a '•variable." In the subjunctive the 
past refers to the present and the present, tu the future. The imperative 
always points to the future in spite of the poor excuse that the COMMA VD is 
present. The infinitive doe-, nut reler to time at all 



Eastman's Practical Grammar 85 

The Present Perfect Tense denotes an act just 
finished; as, "I have read to-day's news." 

The Past Perfect Tense denotes an act past, 
prior to something else; as, "I had arrived before the 
minister." 

The Future Perfect denotes a future time prior to 
something else; as, "I shall have arrived before noon." 



34. Number and Person. 

By Number and Person of verbs, we mean that 
agreement that exists between the verb and its subject. 

That is, the verb— the finite verb — is said to have 
the same person and number as its subject. 

The verb "be" has "am" for the present tense, 
first person singular, and "are" for the second person, 
"is" for the third; thus, lam; You are; He is; while the 
form changes again in the plural: We are; You are; 
They are. 

The solemn style inflects the verb for number and 
person; as, I love; Thoulovest; He loveth. 

The modern verb actually has no inflection for num- 
ber and person except the verb be, and the third per- 
son singular of the indicative mode present tense of 
other verbs. * 



*Why retain it as a property then? The only answer we can give is, 
for the sake of a correspondence with other languages; as they have this 
inflection. 



86 Eastman's Practical Grammar 



$5. Voice. 



Voice is the property of a transitive verb which 
shows whether the subject exerts the act or receives it; 
or, 

•Voice is that property of a verb which shows 
whether the subject exerts the act or receives it. 

Some authors hold that the nature of a verb to ex- 
press the act in two ways, is the voice of the verb; as, 
' 'John struck William. ' ' "William was struck by John. ' ' 
As the intransitive verb cannot do this, they say that 
voice does not belong to intransitive verbs. 

Those who give the second definition, hold that in- 
transitive verbs expressing action, have the active voice, 
and that transitive verbs only, have the passive voice. 



36. Definitions. 



A VERB ia a word that expresses action, being, or 
state. 

A Transitive Verb ia a verb that shows an act 
done to an object. 

A Transitive Verb by Nature is a verb that read- 
ily takes an object. 

A Transitive Verb by Use is one that actually has 
an object. 

An Intransitive Verb is a verb that does not 
show an act done to an object. 

An Intransitive Verb by Nature does not read- 
ily admit an object. 



Eastman's Practical Grammar 87 

A Intransitive Verb by Use has no object after 
it. 

A Copula is a verb that merely couples the real 
Predicate to the subject. 

An Auxiliary Verb is a verb used to help in the 
formations of modes, tenses, voices, etc. 

A Regular Verb is a verb that forms its past 
tense and past participle by adding "ed" to the pres- 
ent. 

An Irregular Verb is a verb that does not form 
its past tense and past participle by adding "ed". 

A Redundant Verb is a verb that has more than 
one form in its past tense and past participal, or in one 
of them. 

A Defective Verb is a verb that has not all of the 
modes and tenses. 

Mode is the manner in which a verb is used. 

The Indicative Mode is the use of a verb to de- 
clare, or to ask a question. 

The Potential Mode is the use of the verb with 
the auxuiliaries may, can, must, miqht, could, would, 
and shoidd. 

The Subjunctive M ode is that use of the verb 
that expresses what is not the case, by a wish or a sup- 
position; it also implies futurity linked with uncer- 
tainty. 

The Imperative Mode expresses a command, an 
exhortation, permission, and prayer. 

The Infinitive Mode is a noun form of the verb. 

Tense is a form of the verb with reference to time. 

The Present Tense is a form of the verb that 
primarily refers to the present time. 



88 Eastman's Practical Grammar 

The Past Tense is the form of the verb that pri- 
marily refers to past time. 

The Future Tense is the form of the verb that re- 
fers to future time. 

The Present Perfect Tense is that form of the 
verb that refers to the past part of the present period 
of time.* 

The Past Perfect Tense is that form of the verb 
that represents an action, being, or state, as finished 
in past time before some other past. 

The Future Perfect Tense is that form of the 
verb which represents an action to be finished in the 
future, before some other future time, or action. 

Voice is that property of a transitive verb by which 
it may be made to represent the subject as acting, or 
as being acted upon. 

Person and Number are the properties of a finite 
verb, that show its agreement with its subject nomin- 
ative. 

A Finite Verb is a verb in either the indicative, 
the potential, the subjunctive, or the imperative mode. 

EXERCISE IX. 

Poi . and give all their 

i>, ■<>/» i /• and 

by the subject. 

1. Americans fought for freedom. 2. I have 
written my letter. 3. I had reached the depot before 

♦Logically there is no present time. Every instant of time that is not 
past, is coming. The present is as a movable point. The only present 
time that may be conceived of, is made op of apart of the past and a part 
of the future, making a present period; as, this day, or year, etc. The pres- 
ent perfect tense denotes what happens in the past part of such period. 



Eastman's Practical Grammar 89 



the train came. 4. I hold to you my hands to show 
you they are free. 5. I shall perish. 6. I shall 
have copied the letter before you start. 7. "To thine 
own self be true." 8. I wish I owned the Klondike 
mines. 9. May I quit? 10. I was struck with her 
beauty. 11. I am well pleased. 

REVIEW QUESTIONS 5. 

1. What is a verb? 2. The properties of a verb? 
3. What is a transitive verb? 4. Intransitive? 5. 
In what two ways may verbs be considered as transi- 
tive or intransitive? 6. What is a copula? 7. An 
auxiliary verb? 8. What is a regular verb? 9. An 
irregular verb? 10. Redundant? 11. Defective? 12. 
Define mode, tense, number, person, voice. 13. What 
two ways of considering the verb with regard to voice? 
Which do you prefer? Why? 



37. Modes and Tenses. 



1. The Indicative Mode 

The Indicative Mode has dix tenses which have 
already been explained. They have their special dif- 
ferences of form. The tenses are known by what are 
called tense signs. 

TENSE SIGNS: 

{Present, (has no sign), Ex. I Jove my mother. 

Past, "ed,' if regular. Ex. I loved my mother. 
Future, "shall" or ■'will". Ex. I shall love her better, 

The word "have", in its proper form, is used in 
all tenses denoting perfected action, being, etc., and so 
helps to form what is called perfect tenses; as, 



90 Eastman's Practical Grammar 

(Present Perfect, "have 1 ' . Ex. I have loved my home. 

Past Perfect, "had". Ex I had loved my home. 

Future Perfect, '"shall have" Ex. 1 shall have learned to 
or "will have." like home. 

When "have 7 ' denotes possession, it is not an auxil- 
iary verb but a principal verb; as, I have money; I had 
money. 

2. The Potential Mode. 

This mode has only four tenses, or tense forms. 

The present signs are "may", "can", or "must "; 
as, I can read; I must go. 

"May", though always present, can be used to de- 
note future probability; as, It may rain to-morrow. 

"May" also denotes present permission; as, You 
may go. 

"Can" denotes present ability; as, I can read and 
write. 

"Must" denotes present necessity to do something 
in the future; as, I must repair that gate soon. 

"Might", the past of "may", denotes future contin- 
gency, i. e. that something might happen in conse- 
quence of something else; as, I would apologize, but he 
might insult me. 

Should such contingency not exist use "may" in- 
stead of "might"; as, I would go to church but it 
might rain, would imply that your goiner would cause 
it to rain. Say it may rain 

"Could" besides denoting the past of "can" is also 
used to denote the conclusion of an hypothesis; as, If he 
would try he could do that. 

"Would", the past of "will", may also express a 
present or a future supposition; as, If he would go, etc. 

"Should", the past of "shall", may have the same 
construction as "would", except that it does not refer 



Eastman's Practical Grammar 91 



to the will, or willingness. If he would do so, implies a 
lack of willingness; If he should do so, merely means 
to imply chance. 

"Have", in the indicative mode, in fact, in all the 
modes, is the sign of the perfect tenses. 

SIGNS. 

Present, May, can, must. 

Past, Might, could, would, should. 
Present Perfect, May have, can have, must have. 
Past Perfect, Might have, could have, would or 
should have. 



3. Subjunctive Mode. 

The Subjunctive Mode has three tenses. 

The past tense in i his mode is used to express a 
wish, or a supposition of something contrary to fact. 

When I say I wish I had — or, If I had a pen I 
would write, it is a way of saying I have no. pen. This 
way of making the assertion is peculiar to the subjunc- 
tive mode. 

When the past tense is used for past time, no sueh 
thing is implied as is in the above instance, and the 
verb is in the indicative mode. Take the two sentences : 
"If I owned a mule I would sell my horse;" If I owned 
a mule I had a horse, also. Which is subjunctive? Why? 

The present subjunctive points to future time, and 
uses the plural form of the verb wherever the number 
is shown, whether the subject is singular or •plural. 
This form conveys the idea of a future uncertainty. 

The subjunctive generally follows the words* "if" 
"though," "unless," "till," etc.; but these words are 
no part of the verb. 



92 Eastman's Practical Grammar 

Examples of the Present Subjunctive: I will love him 
though he abn.se me. This would be indicative stated 
thus: I will love him though he abuses me. 

In the first sentence "abuse" looks to the future 
while in the latter it implies a present custom, and is 
indicative. Take the two sentences: "If that glacier 
moves, I cannot see it;" "If he move from this country, 
I shall go." Which is indicative? Which subjunctive? 
Why? 

The past perfect subjunctive, like the past, implies 
what is not the case, by wishing, or supposing some- 
thing contrary to fact; as, "If I had known him, I 
would have liked him." This implies that I did not 
know him. 

Unlike the past, however, the past perfect does not 
represent the present, but corresponds with the same 
tense in the indicative; i. e.. it denotes a past, prior to 
another past. 

Some authors say that the subjunctive is going out 
of use. This is a very unscholarly statement. It is a 
conclusion to which they have rushed, because the 
present subjunctive, which is always plural in form, 
is being more and more Carelessly used in the singular. 
If it were to be used entirely in the singular, there 
would still be sufficient grounds for the use of the sub- 
junctive mode. 



-4. Imperative {Mode. 
The Imperative Mode is used to express: 

(a) emu ma nd: as, Leave the room. 

(b) Entreaty; as, Spare me this disgrace. 

(c) Exhortation; as, Turn from your evil ways. 

(d) Prayer; as. Thy kingdom come. 



Eastman's Practical Grammar 93 



The imperative mode has the present tense only; 
not because the command, etc., is given at the present 
time, as most grammarians say, but because usage 
warrants this form. 

Most grammarians have fallen into another gross 
error in regard to the person of this mode; teaching 
that the imperative mode has the second person only. 
This is the person generally used in the imperative, 
but it really has three persons. 

Examples of the first person: "Now, tread we & 
measure"; "Then turn we to her latest tribune's name"; 
"Proceed we to the subject"; "Go we in and rest 
awhile." 

Examples of the second person: "Charge, Chester, 
charge;" "Be silent that ye may hear." 

Examples of the third person: "Laugh those who 
may, weep those who must"; "Ruin seize thee, ruthless 
king;" "Be it enacted by the Legislature of the State 
of Texas;" "Thy kingdom come." 

The subject "you" or "thou" is nearly always 
omitted. 

The case of address must not be mistaken for the 
subject; as, John, come to me. John is not the sub- 
ject, but it is in the nominative case independent by 
address. "You", understood, is the subject. 

The indicative, the potential, the subjunctive, and 
the imperative, constitute what is known as the finite 
verb. 

The infinitive mode and the participle are not in- 
cluded in the finite verb, but constitute what is known 
as the infinite. 



04 Eastman's Practical Grammar 



5. The Infinitive Mode. 

This mode does not make an assertion. It has the 
word "to" for its sign, which is, however, only an 
idiomatic attendant upon the verb; being neither a 
part of the verb, nor a preposition. 

After the active voice of "bid", "dare", "feel", 
"see", "hear", and some others, this word "to" must 
be omitted, except in certain constructions. 

The Infinitive Mode has only two tense forms: 

(a) Present, To write; to eat; to like; 
to hate, etc. 
(b) Present Perfect, To have written; to have 

eaten, etc. 
The present is used when the action, being or state 
is not limited by another action, being, or state. 

It has no reference to time, for we may say, I ex- 
pected to write; I expect to write; I shall expect to 
write. Hence we see it has nothing to do with time. 

The present perfect is limited by some other time, 
action, or being, etc.; as, I hoped to have arrived before 
the train started. 

This mode has the following constructions; 
(a) That of a Norn Subject; aa, To play is pleasant. 
</,) That of a Noun in the Predicate; as, They are 
to visit us. 

(c) That of an Object of a Transitive Verb; as, 1 
want to eat. 

(d) That of an Objectivt Complement; as, I want 
the tale to b* true. 

(, i That of <"< Adjective; as, He is the man to do 
that job. 



Eastman's Practical Grammar 95 

if) That of an Adverb; as, He goes to school to 
learn. 

(g) That of an Appositive; as, This task, to teach 
the young, is pleasant. 

(h) That of an Assumed Predicate; as, For him to 
steal is a disgrace. 

It is often a word of tw > fold etymology: as a noun 
subject, and at the same tune, as a verb governing an 
object. Example: To play ball is pleasant sport. ' 

Words often have this twofold etymology; as, Ten 
thousand men came. Here ten as a adjective modifies 
the noun nature of thousand, while the word thousand, 
in its adjective nature, modifies men. 

The infinitive, in this twofold nature, may be an 
adverb modifying a verb, and a verb governing an 
, object; as, He goes to school to get his education. To 
get, as an adverb, modifies goes, and as a verb it takes 
the object, education. 



39. Participles 



Participles are verbs as they express action, be- 
ing, or state; yet they are like adjectives as they 
qualify nouns v and pronouns, by assigning to them a 
condition of aetion, being, or state. 

Examples: ' 'A wife always scolding, is disagree- 
able;" "A scolding wife is always disagreeable." 

In the first example we have the participle, scold- 
ing, describing wife like an adjective, and yet express- 
ing action like a verb. 



96 Eastman's Practical Grammar 



In the second example, scolding is placed before 
the word wife; and then it is a pure adjective. 

A participle placed before the noun it modifies, is 
called a participial adjective. 

In the sentence; "She made herself sick dancing;" 
and, "Dancing made her sick." The first dancing is a 
participle; but in the second example, 'lancing is a 
noun, the subject of made sick. 

A participial noun partakes of the nature of a verb 
and a noun. It is sometimes called a gerund. 

A particii.lo may take any case for its subject, as, 
He fell fijrhting; We found him fighting; His tighting 
was heroic. 

In these examples, the cases are nominative, ob- 
jective, and possessive. 

Sometimes a word that usually BS action, 

is used as a pure noun losing all verbal nature; as, His 
writing is so bad 1 can hardly read it. 

parciciple carries a twofold etymology; 
as, Playing ball : i hying is a 

noun, the sub. I a verb it takes the ob- 

ject ball. 

Participles are of two kinds; one showing an act as 
incomplete at tbeiime referred to. This is called the im- 
perfect or present partitive. The other shows an act 
finished or complete at the time referred to by the finite 
verb. This is called the perfect or past participle. 
The imperfect or present participle in the active voice 

ends in ing. 

The perfect or past participle ends in ed if reg- 
ular, and if irregular, it most often ends in n or t, but 
ont always. 



Eastman's Practical Grammar 97 

EXAMPLES OF FORM. 

Present. Past, or Perfect. 

Active, Writing, Active, Having written, 

Passive, Being Passive, Having been writ- 
written, ten. or written. 

EXAMPLES OF USE: 

Present active, I found him writing a letter. 
Present passive, Letters are being written daily. 
Past active, Having written the letter, I 

mailed it. 
Past passive, The letter having been written, I 
mailed it. 
The past, active and passive, above, are called by- 
some grammarians, compound participles; but they 
convey but one idea and should be taken together as 
simple in idea. 

The simple form of the past passive is called the 
auxiliary perfect, as it is used to form the perfect tense, 
and the passive voice. 



40. Active and Passive Forms. 

While mode depends on use, and tense depends on 
form, voice is known both by use and form. 

The regular form for the passive voice is the auxil- 
iary perfect participle preceded by some form of the 
verb be; as, Is loved; Are refused; Was drowned. 
"The goods are sold at cost." This sentence may be 
expressed in the passive sense, but in the active form; as, 
Goods sell at cost. 



98 Eastman's Practical Grammar 



EXAMPLES. 

Passive inform and use: 
Passive in sense, active inform: 

Wood is split for kindling; 
Wood splits easily. 

Ground is plowed for planting; 
The ground plows well. 

The above is true of the participle. Goods selling 
high, the farmer bought none of them. 

Not all verbs, however, can be so used. 

The rule for forming the passive voice is, (a) Take 
the object of 'ne transitive verb in the active voice, 
and make it che subject; (b) change the verb from the 
active form to the passive, and (c) place the subject as 
the object of the preposition by; as, The boy drowned 
the kittens; changed to the passive. The kittens were 
drowned by the boy. 

Sometimes when the indirect object occurs in the 
active, and is used for the subject passive, it leaves 
the passive verb transitive; as, I taught John grammar; 
John was taught grammar by me. 

REVIEW QUESTIONS. VI. 

1. How many tenses has the indicative mode and 
what are they? 2. Give the tense signs of the indic- 
ative. •".. What auxiliary is used as the sign of all 
the perfect tenses? 1. When is have not a princi- 
pal verb, and when is it a principal verb? 5. How 
many and what tenses in the potential mode? G. What 
auxiliaries are used as tense signs? 7. Do they de- 
note time as indicated by their name? 8. What does 
may denote'.' can? must? might? could? would? 
should? !». Give, in order, the tense forms of the po- 



Eastman's Practical Grammar 99 



tential? 10. What is the subjunctive mode? 11. 
How many tenses has it? 12. How is the past tense 
used? 13. How the preseit? 14. When the verb 
shows a number form, what number is always used in 
the subjunctive? 15. How is the past perfect sub- 
junctive used? 16. Is the suojunctive mode going out 
of use? 17. Why do some grammarians think so? 
18. How is the imperative mode used? 19. What is its 
person usually? 20. Is it confined to the second person? 
21. Give examples of its use in the first, and third 
persons. 22. What is meant by the finite verb? 23. 
Does the infinitive mode assert? 24. What is its 
sign? 25. When is the sign omitted? 26. What 
tenses has the infinitive? 27. Does tense in the infini- 
tive refer to time? 28. How are the two tense forms 
used? 29. Give the eight constructions of the infini- 
tive with original examples. 30. What is meant by a 
word having twofold etymology? 31. What is a par- 
ticiple? 32. What two kinds? 33. What endings 
have they? 34. What is a participial adjective? 35. 
A participial noun? 36. Give examples. 37. What 
voices has the participle of a transitive verb? 38. 
Give examples. 39. Which participle is used to help 
form the perfect tenses, and the passive voice? 40. 
Give some examples of active forms with passive mean- 
ings. 41. Can all verbs be used in this way? 42. 
Give the rule for forming the passive. 43. When may 
a passive verb b? transitive? 



ORDER AND MODELS FOR PARSING. 

Order of parsing the verb. 

1. Part of speech, 

2. Regular or irregular, 

3. Transitive or intransitive and how (by nature 
•r use) ? 

Lof C. 



100 Eastman* s Practical Grammar 

4. Voice, 

5. Mode, 

6. Tense, 

7. Number and person, 

8. Agreement if finite, 

9. Construction if infinitive. 

Model for a Finite Verb. 

Smith & Co. had ordered the goods before the 
crash came. 

Had ordered is a verb, regular, transitive, both 
by nature and use, active voice, indicative mode, past 
perfect tense, third person, plural number, and agrees 
with the subject, Smith cv Co. 

Model /<>/■ an infinitive: 

"To be honest is to be happy. " 

To >» i.-s a verb, irregular, intransitive, without 
voice, infinitive mode, present tense, used as the sub- 
ject of is. To be (parse as above except construc- 
tion). It is used as the complement of the predicate. 

Order for participles', 

1. Part of speech, 

2. Kind. 

3. Voice, 

4. Tell what it modifies. 

"John caught cold skating." 

Skating is a participle, present, active, and 
modifies John, 



Eastman's Practical Grammar 101 

EXERCISES IN PARSING. IX. 

Parse all the verbs: 

1. The army swept over the country and devastated 
the farms, and burned the dwellings. 2. I have heard 
that we shall live in a life beyond the grave. 3. I 
have heard thee speak of a better land. 4. Trv to be 
happy while you live. 5. I must tell him though he 
strike me. 6. I would tell you but you might become 
offended. 7. He may have done the deed. 8. He 
could have written more legibly. 9. Had I known of 
his suffering, I would have pitied him. 10. This 
wool spins well. 11. Molasses pours slowly from a 
faucet. 12. If I had a pen I would write. 

Parse the participles: 

1. The General being wounded, the army retreated. 

2. He died, loved and respected by all who knew him. 

3. He fell fainting, having been exhausted with losing 
so much blood. 4. He played a losing game. 5. His 
crying attracted a crowd. 6. Eating onions makes 
the breath bad. 7. The boy went tumbling down the 
hill. 

Note — It is possible for participles to have the construction of 
adverbs. Example: He sent the ball rol'ing; I threw the purse whirling. 
To give them this construction, however, is a little forced. 

Review the above exercises, parsing all nouns, pro- 
nouns, adjectives, and verbs including participles. 



45. Conjugation. 

Conjugation is the arrangement of verbs in regu- 
lar order, so as to show their modes, tenses, numbers, 
persons, and voices. 



102 Eastman's Pi^actical Grammar 

CONJUGATION OF THE VERB "BE." 

Principal Parts. 

Present Tense, Be or am, 

Past Tense, Was, 
Past Participle, Been, 

INDICATIVE MODE. 
Present Tense: 

MODERN STYLE. ANCIENT OR SOLEMN STYLE. 



First Person, I im, We are, 
Sfcon<i Person, You are, You are. 
Third J'< r«m, He Is, Tl 



hirst rerson, lam. We am 

■ 'arson . Thoa art . Ye aiv. 
mird l',rs,,„. He is, They are 



/\/.s7 Tense. 



i. I was, We were, 
■ n were, You were, 



I wai. 

He w»e, 



*^e were, 
Ye were, 
They were 



/•'//////■- 7'. 

Use *//</// in the first person and will in the second 
and third unless you wish to express determination; in 
that case reverse the order. 



Fieri Per. I -hall be. 

Second i'< r . Jfoo will 1m 

Third t'i ,-. He will be, 



We shall h". 

Yea will l><-. 
They will !»•. 



1 /'■ r. 1 shall 1.-. 

:: Per. Thou wilt be 

;; Per. He will be, They will be. 



They atoll be 

Y.- will !..■. 



Or, to express determination, 



i . I will be. We will be, 
ft. Yon -hall be, You thai] be. 
ih- sha'l in.. They ah ill be. 



I will in.. We will be, 

rhon shalt be, Ye shall be, 
H.- -ball be, Thoy will be. 



You was originally plural. It now stands for 
either a singular or a plural antecedent, but the verb 
agreeing with it is always plural. 



Eastman's Practical Grammar 103 



Present Perfect Tense. 

Singular, Plural, 

First Person, I have been, We have been, 

Second Person, You have, or thou hast. You or ye have been, 
been, 

Third Person, He has, or hath, been; They have been, 

Past Perfect Tense. 

1. I had been, We had been, 

2. You had, or thou hadst, You or ye had been, 

been, 

3. He had been; They had been. 

Future Perfect Tense. 

1. I shall have been, We shall have been, 

2. Yoxi will, or thoti wilt, have You or ye will have been, 

been, 

3. He will have been They will have been, 



POTENTIAL MODE. 

Present Tense. 

1. I may be, We may be, 

2. You may or thou mayest be, You or ye may be, 

3. He may be; They may be. 

Past Tense. 

1. I might be, We might be, 

2. You might or thou mightest be, You or ye might be, 

3. He might be; They might be. 

Present Perfect Tense. 

1. I may have been, We may have been, 

2. You may, or thou mayest, You or ye may have been, 

have been, 

3. He may have been; They may have been 

Past Perfect Tense. 
Singular, Plural, 

First Person, I might have been We might have been, 

Second Person, You might, or thou mightest You or yc might have been. 

have been, 

Third Person, He might have been; Th^y might have been. 



104 Easinan's Practical Grammar 



SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 

Present 2 
Singular. Plural. 

1 Kit*, IfW 

I- . I • ..-be, 

3. It he be; 

Past T< 

... [i tu ■ 

/ 

11:1.' -ii. 

•1 If J 

;j. If be iiaa : b id ' «• 



IMPERATIVE MODE. 

Singula!*.. Plural. 

i 



IX i DE. 

i i be; 



PARTICIPLES, OR PAR riCIPIAL MODE. 

TH1 \i: 

CONJUG B "LOVE." 

A< TIVK VOICE. 
/'/■ 

Pa I ved. 



Eastman* s Practical Grammar 



105 



INDICATIVE MODE. 






Present Tense. 




Singular. 




Plural. 


First Person, I love, 
Second Person, You love, 
Third Person, He lovea, 


Past Tense. 


We love, 
You love, 
They love. 


1. I loved, 

2. You loved, 

3. He loved, 


We loved, 
You loved, 
They loved. 




Future Tense. 




1. I shall love, 

2. You will lov« 

3. He will love, 


We shall love, 

, You will love, 

They will love. 



Present Perfect Tense. 



1. I have loved, 

2. You have lovei, 

3. He has loved, 



We have loved, 
You have loved, 
They have loved. 



Past Perfect Tense. 



1. I had loved, 

2. You had loved, 

3. He had loved. 



We had loved, 
You had loved, 
They had loved. 



Future Perfect Tense. 



1. I shall have loved, 

2. You will have loved, 

3. He will have loved, 



We shall have loved, 
You will have loved, 
They will have loved. 



POTENTIAL MODE. 

Use may, can, or must for the present— might, 
could, would or should, for the past. 



106 Eastman's Practical Grammar 



Present Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

First Person, I can love, We can love 

Stcond Person. You can love , You can love, 

Third Person, He can love. They can love. 

Past Tense. 

1. I might love, We might love, 
:.'. You might love Y<m might love, 
3 He might love, Thty might love. 

Present Perfect Tense. 

i. [ may have loved, Wemay have loved, 

2. Yon may have loved, v. >a may have loved. 
B. i He in iy have loved, They may have loved. 

Past Perfect Tenet . 

1. I might have loved, We might have loved, 

Sou might have loved, Xbo might have loved. 

I He mik'iit have loved, They might have loved. 



SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 
Present Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

Firtt Person, li If welov. 

Second Parson, It roil love, It' von love, 

Third Person, If he love, it" they love. 

Post Tense. 

1. If I loved. If wo loved, 

' If yon loved, If you loved, 

:t. If ho loved: If they loved. 

Post l'< rfect Tense. 

1. If I had loved, or H:i'l I It " w.- liail loved, .>r Had wo 

loved, loved, 

_' If you had loved, or Had if you had loved, or Had you 

you loved, loved, 

8, if hi' h:t«i loved, ox Bad i>- if tbej had loved, or Had they 

loved; loved 



Eastman's Practical Grammar 107 

IMPERATIVE MODE. 

Present Tense. 
Singular, Plural, 



passive VOICE. 
INDICATIVE MODE. 

Present Tense. 
Singular, Plural, 

First Person, I am loved, We are loved, 

Second Person, You are loved, You are loved, 

Third Person, He is loved ; Thev are loved . 

Past Tense. 

1. I was loved. We were loved , 

2. You were loved, You were loved, 

3. Hewaslcved; They were loved. 

Future Tense. 

1. I shall be loved, We shall be loved, 

2 . You will be loved , You will be loved , 

3. He will-be loved, They will be loved. 

Present Perfect Tense. 

1. I have been loved, We have been loved, 

2 . You have been loved , You have been loved , 

3. He has been loved, They have been loved. 

Past Perfect Tense. 

1 . I had been loved, We had been loved, 

2. You had been loved, You had been loved, 

3 . He had been loved , They had been loved. 

Future Perfect Tense. 

1. I shall have been loved, ' We shall have been loved, 

2 . You will have been loved , You will have been loved , 

3. He will have been loved. They will have been loved, 



108 Eastman's Practical Grammar 

POTENTIAL MODE. 
Present T< 

Singular. Plural. 

First Perto We can be loved, 

Th<-\ ■ 

] . I would be loved, 

Yon \\ 

1.1 loved, 









NCTIVE MODE. 
Singular. Plural. 

li we ' 

■ 
i 

/',,,' /'. rfect ZfeflM. 

I. if i had been loved, I " 

->. If yon bad been loved, if rm, 

:i if be had be d loved, if tin-v bad b • 



Eastman's Practical Grammar 109 



IMPERATIVE MODE. 

Present Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

Beloved, Beloved. 

INFINITIVE MODE. 

Present. To be loved; Present Perfect, To liavo been 

, lovod. 

PARTICIPLES, OR PARTICIPIAL MODE. 

Present, Being loved ; Past, Having been loved, or 

Loved. 



46. Verbal Forms. 

The Progressive Form is made by prefixing to 
the present participle, some form of the verb "be." 
SYNOPSIS. 



Present, I am loving. 

Past, I was loving. 

Future, I shall be loving. 

Present Perfect, I have been loving. 

Past Perfect, I had been loving. 

Future Perfect, I shall have been loving. 



The remaining modes are easily understood. 

The Emphatic Forms are made by prefixing the 
auxiliaries, do and did. They are only used in the 
present and past; as, I do love; I did love. 



47. Irregular Verbs. 

Irregular Verbs are conjugated like regular verbs; 
the difference being in the past tense forms, and such 
forms as use auxiliary past participles. That these 



110 



Eastman's Practical Grammar 



may be known, we give the following list of irregular 
verbs, which are taken from "Harvey's English Gram- 
mar." 



Present, 

Abide, 
am 

awake, 

arise, 
bear, 

bear, 
beat, 

become, 
befall, 

beget, 

begin, 

behold. 

belay, 

bereave, 

beseech, 

bet, 

betide, 
bid, 



3f Irregular Verbs. 


Past, 


Past Participle 


abode. 


abode. 


was, 


been. 


awoke. 


1 awoke, 




1 awakened. 


arose, 


arisen. 


( bore, 


horn. 


i bare, 




bore. 


borne. 


beat, 


1 beaten 




1 beat. 


became, 


become. 


befell, 


befallen. 


\ begat. 


' begotten. 


1 begot, 


I begot. 


.■an. 


begun. 


beheld, 


beheld. 


belaid. 


belaid. 


bereft, 


bereft 


besought, 


besought. 




bet. 


> betided, 


j bet ided. 


- beti 


I betid. 


j bid, 


| bid. 


i back-. 


I bidden. 



Eastman's Practical Grammar 



111 



bite, 


bit, 


j bitten. 
Hit. 


bind, 


bound, 


bound. 


bleed, 


bled, 


bled. 


bless, 


f blessed, 
X blest, 


f blessed. 
1 blest. 


breed, 


bred, 


bred. 


break, 


f broke, 
X brake, 


f broken. 
1 broke. 


bring, 


brought, 


brought. 


built, 


f builded, 
X built, 


( builded. 


1 built. 


burn, 


(burnt, 


f burned. 
\ burnt. 


X burned, 


burst, 


burst, 


burst. 


buy, 


bought, 


bought. 


cast, 


cast, 


cast. 


catch, 


caught, 


caught. 


chide, 


chid, 


j chiden. 
{chid. 


choose, 


chose, 


chosen. 


cleave, 


j cleaved, 
1 clave, 


cleaved. 




(cleft, 


( cleft. 


cleave, 


■j clove, 


-! cloven. 
( cleaved. 




(. clave, 


cling, 


clung, 


clung. 


clothe, 


f clothed, 
I clad, 


/clothed. 
1 clad. 


come, 


came, 


come. 


cost, 


, cost, 


cost. 


creep, 


crept, 


crept. 


crow, 


crew, 


crowed. 


cut, 


cut, 


cut. 



112 



Eastman's Practical Grammar 



dare, 


durst, 


deal, 


dealt, 


dig, 


("digged, 
I dug, 


do, 


did, 


draw, 


drew, 


dream, 


f dreamed, 
1 dreamt, 




f dressed, 


dress, 


(drest, 


dwell. 


dwelt, 


drive, 


drove, 


eat. 


ate, 


fall, 


fell, 


feed, 


fed, 


feel, 


felt. 


fight, 


fought, 


find, 


found. 


forbear. 


forbore, 


forget, 


forgot, 


forsak-'. 


forsook, 


fiee, 


fled, 


fling, 


flung, 


ily, 


flew, 


freeze, 


froze, 


freight. 


freighted 


get, 




give, 


gave, 


.did. 


1 gilded. 

1 .rill- 



gird, 



\ girded, 

(girt, 



dared. 

dealt. 
( digged. 
I dug. 

done. 

drawn. 
I dreamed. 
( dreamt. 
( dressed. 
{ drest. 

dwelt. 

driven. 

eaten. 

fallen. 

fed. 

felt. 

fought. 

found. 

forborne. 
i forgotten, 
i forgot. 

forsaken. 

fled. 

flung. 

tlown. 

frozen. 
I freighted. 
I fraught. 
I got, 
( gotten. 

given. 
\ gilded 
i. gilt. 
\ girded. 
I girt. 



Eastman's Practical Grammar 113 



go, 
grave, 

grind, 
grow, 

hang, 

have, 

heave, 

hew, 

hear, 

hide, 

hit, 

hold, 

hurt, 
keep, 

kneel, 

knit, 

know, 

lay, 

lead, 

lean, 

leap, 

learn, 

leave, 
lend, 



went, 
graved, 

ground, 
grew, 

f hanged, 

I hung, 
had, 

f heaved, 

/hove, 

hewed, 

heard, 

hid, 

hit, 

held, 

hurt, 

kept, 
f kneeled, 
I. knelt, 
/"knitted, 
/knit, 

knew, 

laid, 

led, 
f leaned, 
1 leant, 
/leaped; 
\ leapt, 
(learned, 
1 learnt, 

left, 

lent, 



gone, 
f graved. 
(. graven. 

ground. 

grown. 
f hanged. 
I hung. 

had. 
/heaved. 
L hove. 
f hewed, 
/hewn. 

heard. 
f hidden. 
I hid. 

hit. 
( held. 
( holden. 

hurt. 

kept. 

knelt. 

f knitted. 
Unit. 

known. 

laid. 

led. 
{ leaned. 
(. leant, 
f leaped. 
1 leapt, 
/learned, 
/learnt. 

left. 

lent. 



114 



Eastman's Practical Grammar 



let, 


let, 


let. 


lie, 


lay, 


lain. 


light, 


/lighted, 
Hit, 


flighted. 
1 lit. 


lose, 


lost, 


lost. 


load, 


loaded, 


/loaded. 
\ laden. 


make, 


made, 


made. 


mean, 


meant, 


meant. 


meet, 


met, 


met. 


mow. 


mowed, 


f mowed, 
/mown. 


pay, 


paid, 


paid. 




f passed, 


\ passed. 


pass, 


I past, 


1 past. 




/penned, 


J penned. 
1 pent. 


pen v 


(pent, 


-I..J 


f pleaded, 


/pleaded. 


plead, 


I pled, 


1 pled. 


put, 


put, 


put. 


quit. 


/quitted, 
1 quit, 


/quitted, 
tquit. 




f rapped, 


Trapped. 


rap, 


1 rapt, 


I rapt. 


read, 


read, 


read. 


reave, 


reft, 


reft. 


rend, 


rent, 


rent. 


ride, 


rode, 


ridden. 


ring, 


J rang, 
(rung, 


rung. 


rise, 


rose, 


risen. 
I rived. 


rive, 


rived, 


1 riven. 



Eastman's Practical Grammar 



115 



saw, 


• sawed, 


/sawed, 
t sawn. 


say, 


said, 


said. 


see, 


saw, 


seen. 


seethe, 


seethed, 


S seethed, 
/sodden. 


seek, 


sought, 


sought. 


set, 


set, 


set. 


shake, 


shook, 


shaken. 


shape, 


shaped, 


/shaped, 
/shapen. 
j shaved. 


shave, 


shaved, 


1 shaven. 




J* sheared, 
\ shore, 


( sheared, 
/shorn. 


shear, 


shed, 


shed; 


shed. 




f shined, 


/shined. 
/ shone. 


shine, 


/shone, 


shoe. 


shod, 


shod. 


shoot, 


shot, 


shot. 


show, 


showed, 


shown. 




f shred, 
/shredded, 


( shred, 
/shredded. 


shred, 


shrink, 


/ shrank, 
/ shrunk, 


/shrunk. 
/ shrunken. 


shut, 


shut, 


shut. 


sit, 


sat, 


sat. 


sing, 


f sang, 
/sung, 


sung. 


sink, 


f sank, 
/sunk, 


sunk. 


sow, 


sowed, 


/sowed. 
/ sown. 


slay, 


slew, 


slain.! 


sleep, 


slept, 


slept. 



116 



Eastman's Practical Grammar 



sling, 
slink, 
slit, 

smell, 

smite, 
speak, 
speed, 

spell, 
spent, 
spill, 
spin, 

spit, 

split, 
spread, 

spring, 
spoil, 

stay, 

stand, 

stave, 

steal, 
stick, 
sting, 
stride. 



slung, 

slunk, 
slit, 

smelt. 

smote, 
spoke, 
sped, 

< spelled. 

< spelt, 

spent. 

I spilled. 
I spilt, 

l spun, 
I. span. 

I spit, 
i spat, 

split. 

spread. 

I sprang. 
1 sprung. 

f spoiled. 

I spoilt. 

I stayed. 

i staid, 
stood. 

I staved. 

L stove, 
stole, 
stuck, 
Btung, 
strode, 



slung. 
' slunk. 

slit, 
f smelled. 
\ smelt. 

smitten. 

spoken. 

sped. 

f spelled. 
I. spelt. 

spent. 

I spilled. 
[ spilt. 

spun. 

I spit. 
i spat. 

split. 

spread. 

sprung. 

I spoiled. 
{ spoilt. 
I stayed. 
I staid. 

stood. 
J staved. 
I. stove. 

stolen. 

stuck. 

stung. 

stridden. 



Eastman's Practical Grammar 



117 



strike, 


struck, 


f struck. 
( stricken. 


string, 


strung, 


strung. 


strive, 


strove, 


striven. 


strow, 


strowed, 


J strowed. 
L strown. 


swear, 


J" swore, 
1 sware, 


sworn. 








/sweated, 


/ sweated. 


sweat, 


1 sweat, 


1 sweat. 


sweep, 


swept, 


swept. 


swell, 


swelled, 


j swelled. 
( swolen. 


swim, 


j swam, 
( swum, 


swum. 


swing, 


swung, 


swung. 


take, 


took, 


taken. 


teach, 


taught, 


taught. 


tear, 


tore, 


torn. 


tell, 


told, 


told. 


think, 


thought, 


thought. 


thrive, 


j thrived, 
( throve, 


/thrived. 
1 thriven. 


throw, 


threw, 


thrown. 


thrust, 


thrust, 


thrust, 


tread, 


trod, 


/trodden. 
1 trod. 


wax, 


waxed, 


/waxed. 
1 waxen. 


wear, 


wore, 


worn. 




/ weaved, 


/weaved. 


weave, 


I wove, 


1 woven. 


weep, 


wept, 


wept. 


wake, 


/ waked; 
I woke, 


/ waked. 


1 woke. 



118 Eastman's Practical Grammar 



wed, 


f wedded, 
Xwed, 


/wedded. 
1 wed. 


wet, 


wet, 


wet. 


whet, 


f whetted, 
1 whet, 


J whet, 
t whetted. 


win, 


won, 


won. 


wind, 


wound, 


wound. 


work, 


/ worked, 
I wrought, 


f worked. 
1 wrought. 


wring, 


wrung, 


wrung. 


write, 


wrote. 


written. 



Impersonal Verbs are those used with an indefi- 
nite subject; as, It rains; It snows. 

Compound Verbs are verbs combined with other 
words, usually prepositions, to express a single idea; 
as, Cast up your accounts. 



50. Errors to be Avoided. 

1. Use the subjunctive mode instead of the indica- 
tive to express a wish, or a supposition contrary to fact, 
or a future doubt or uncertainty. 

Correct the Errors: 1. If he was rich he 
would be generous. 2. Though he falls he shall not 
be utterly cast down. 3. If it rains, * stay till morn- 
ing. 4. If he is encraged he should not be flirting with 
others. 



* There is a growing tendency to use the indicative present for the 
subjunctive present, i. c. , to put the verb into a singular form by the ad- 
dition of "s"; as, If he loves her when they raeer, he may marry her. 



Eastman's Practical Grammar 119 

2. Use the present to express a general truth con- 
nected with the past. 

Correct the Errors: 1. Columbus knew that 
the world was round. 2. He discovered that gravita- 
tion was a constant force that pervades the universe. 
3. Who was that gentleman that sat by you? 4. Who 
was that lady before she was married? (Correct; 
why?) 

3. Do not use the past participle and the past tense 
interchangeably. 

Correct the Errors: 1. 1 seen James when he 
come. 2. I have saw much trouble. 3. He was 
anxious to see it did. 4. The tree had fell, it was 
broke before. 5. We taken cold. 6. We have took 
too much off him now. 

4. Do not use the wrong tense forms in the indica- 
tive. 

Correct the Efrors: 1 He was absent several 
days this week. 2. After [ ate my dinner I returned. 
3. I shall live here a week tomorrow. 

5. Do not use "will" or "would" in the first person 
and "shall" or "should" inthe second and third, unless 
you ivish to express determination. 

Correct the Errors: 1. I will drown; no body 
shall help me. 2. I should regret it if you would lose 
your property. 3. If I would inherit a fortune, I 
should squander it. 

6. Do not use ' l isn't, ' ' ' 'aint' ' or ' 'haint' ' for ' 'is 
not"; "don't" for "does not", or "do not"; "haint" for 
"has not" or "have not" . 

Correct the Errors: 1. Ain't I pretty? 2. 
Don't he s:o? 3. Hasn't he been there? 

7. Do not use "done" or "have got" for "have." 



120 Eastman's Practical Grammar 



Correct the Errors: 1. I done studied my les- 
sons. 2. I have got plenty. 3. He done told you so. 
4. He has got a bad cold. 

S. Do not use "can" or "might 1 " for "may". 

Correct the Errors: 1. Can I be excused from 
the room? 2. Can I go home? 3. Can I speak? 4. I 
would promise to visit you on that day, but it might 
rain. 5. I would kiss you but you may get angry. 

.9. Do not use "-have" in the infinitive unless the 
action is limited by tinu . 

Correct the Errors: 1. I expect to have en- 
joyed myself. 2. I hopo to write the letter in time 
for the train. :!. We hope to have seen you well. 

10. Do not make irregular ilar, or regu- 

lar. 

Correct the Errors: l. [ seed him do that. 2. 
knowed better. ::. He drinked all the water. 
4. They drug him across the yard. 5. They hung 
that man for murder. 

//. Do notiue theintr >erbs f "lie," "rise," 

"si i," i h-.. with an "/'./' ct. 

Correct the Errors: 1. I lie me down to rest 
2. Sit th<> chairs to the table. :'>. I have sat the 
table. 

/.'. Donotust tin tra erbs"lay," "raise," 

vithout ob, 

Setisnot transitive when it refers to heavenly 
bodies: The sun sets: The moon sets, etc. 

Correct the Errors: 1. Here 1 Bet. 2. Lay 
down and rest. • '•. Raise up a moment, 4. I laid on 
the l" d a week. 5. He set in a chair asleep. 

IS. Xnthi present tense of the mode, it 



Eastman's Practical Grammar 121 



the subject is singular, add ' V ' to the verb in the third 
person; leave it off if the subject is plural. 

Correct the Errors: 1. The boys of this town 
loves home. 2. The patriotism of the men and 
women cf this country surpass all others. 3. Many 
men goes home drunk. 4. Men' and women stares 
and run. 

lb. Compound subjects separated by * 'or' ' and ' 'nor' ' 
and those whose parts are modified by a distributive 
adjective, take verbs in the singular. 

Correct the Errors: 1. John or James are at 
home. 2. Every tree, every shrub, and eveiy flower 
were dead. 3. Many a flower are born to blush, etc. 

15. Collective nouns take singular verbs when t he 
whole collection is meant; but plural verbs when the in- 
dividuals are meant. 

Correct the Errors: 1. The committee was 
divided on the question. 2. The army w T as scattering 
and seeking winter quarters in private homes. 3. The 
Jury bring in the verdict, 



GENERAL EXERCISE X. 

Correct all the errors and 'parse all the corrected 
words. 

Some of these sentences are correct; tell why. 
Parse all verbs, participles included of course: 

1. If I was in town yesterday, I did not see you. 

2. If I was in town, I would attend to some business. 

3. If it rains, I do not hear it. 4. If it rains he will 
not come. 5. If I had eaten my dinner, I would not 
be hungry. 6. Harvey discovered that the blood cir- 
culated. 7. Who was the man that spoke today? 8. 



122 Eastman's Practical Grammar 



I seen him when he done it. 9. I took cold. 10. I 
have come to school yesterday and today. 11. I called 
you, but you would not come. 12. I will go but I pre- 
fer to stay. 13. Aint he got any sense? 14. I done 
said that. 15. Can I go to play now? 16. I hope to 
have earned a fortune some day. 17. I seed that he 
knowed all about it. 18. Sit the pitcher down. 19. 
The sun sets in a cloud. 20. There it lays on the 
table. 21. Some men likes to make mischief. 22. 
Every boy and every girl studies his lesson. 23. You 
or I is mistaken. 24. Walk up;* and take some cider. 
25. The ship went down.t 26. Jack and Jill went upt 
the hill. 



51 Adverbs. 

f Tun.'. 

ADVERBS OP.. M»im-r. 

i modal) 
(' DM, 

I Degree. 

ADVERBS modify verbs, adjectives and adverbs. 

Adverbs have comparison like adjectives, although 
many adverbs are without this property. 

Some add i r and est; as, soon, soonn r, soon-eat. 

For the nu»st part, however, they are compared by 

prefixing mon or most, or lees or least; as, gracefully, 

gracefully, most gracefully: or, gracefully, less 

efully, least gracefulhf. 

Many adverbs are compared irregularly; as, well, 
betti r, best. 

» In parsing M Walk up," the two wordi - compound 

vcili I'. ir.se it M JTOU WOUld "walk." 

|* 4 Weill down" is a compound verb-^sank. 

Imple, with '•upthe hill" i 



Eastman's Practical Grammar 123 



An Adverb of Time may consist of a noun in the 
objective case adverbial. Tomorrow, Yesterday, To- 
night, etc. 

Adverbs of Place tell where; as, there, hither, 
thither. They may also consist of an objective adver- 
bial; He went home. 

Adverbs of Manner are generally formed from 
adjectives by adding ly. 

Modal Adverbs show the manner of Assertion, 
as, positive, negative, or doubtful: Surely, Nowise, 
Probably, 

Adverbs of Cause tell why; Wherefore, Therefore, 
Why. 

Adverbs of Degree tell to what extent, or how 
much. These may also consist of an objective adver- 
bial; as, She is ten years old. 

Adverbs may modify prepositional phrases;* as, 
He swam nearly across the river, 

( Interrogative, 
. . | Negative, 

ADVERBS ma> be < Expletive, 

I Correlative, 
I Conjunctive. 

EXAMPLES. 

Interrogatives: When, where, why, wherefore, 
etc. 

Negatives: No, not, never, etc. 

Expletive Adverbs or adverbs used merely to fill 
out the sentence, having no modifying force; as, There 
were giants in those days; Well, I can tell the story; 
Notv,he was a man of great skill. 

*Rome grammarians say ihe adverb modifies the preposition in 
such cases, but we think this is very illogical. 



124 Eastman's Practical Grammar 



Correlative Adverbs, or those used in pairs; 
The more we study, the more we learn. 

Conjunctive Adverbs; or adverbs used to intro- 
duce clauses and connect them to principal clauses 
modifying a word in each*; He earns money when he 
works; Work while it is day; We will reach home before 
the sun sets. 

If the conjunctive adverb introduces a clause im- 
mediately after a noun, it modifies in one clause only; 
as, I love the home >rh< n 1 was born=I love the home 
in which I was born, Tn which modifies iras 
born. 



52 Notes on Adverbs. 

* t •/.', dverbwhen it means "only;" as, I 

■ • friend. 
Some adverbs an used as adjectives; as, only 
theca: \ett,lalo7u am responsible. 

g ••'!'!>, " is» m das an adverb; the more, 

etc. 

an often used for adverbs; as, The 

clouds will pass over. etc-. 

mons with the com- 



v that "any other treatment should 

be than money 

v,hpn b » ** M e«ra« monej I ,ak e 

itta sentences, snd I iiN M =(w 

, n,.«. -m. the time," evidently modifiei 'earns," 
nnd "r Doln - 



Eastman's Practical Grammar 125 

pound verb; as, Go up=ascend; come down=descend; 
pass by=pass. etc. 

6. It is often a difficult question with the student 
ivhether to use the adjective or the adverb ■ after certain 
intransitive verbs; as, I feel badly — or bad? , 

One feels badly when his sense of touch is imper- 
fect; but he feels bad when he is sick. Bad is here 
used in the sense of ill. 

The rose smells sweet— qr sweetly? Evidently 
sweet; for we wish to describe a quality of the rose, 
not an act. 

In all such cases when we can substitute the verb 
be and make sense, with the adjective, we should 
use the adjective instead of the adverb; as, I feel bad 
=1 am bad, or sick, The rose smells sweet=The rose is 
sweet; The morning air looks cold=The air is cold, etc. 

7. Do not use adverbs for adjectives or adjectives for 
'adverbs. 

8. Do not use two negatives in the same sentence 
unless you wish to affirm. 

Correct the Errors: 1. I am tolerably well. 
2. The meat tastes well. 3. Speak slow and distinct. 
4. She looks very neatly. 5. The train don't stop at 
no small station. 6. He never said nothing. 7. I 
never want no help. 8. I don't do nothing. 

EXERCISE XL 

Order of Parsing Adverbs: 

1. What part of speech, 

2. What kind of adverb, 

3. Degree, if any, 

4. What it modifies. 
-'She sings very sweetly." 

Very is an adverb of degree, is not compared, and 



126 Eastman's Practical Grammar 



modifies the adverb, sweetly. 

Sweetly is an adverb of manner, of the positive de- 
gree and modifies the verb sings. 

Parse all nouns, pronouns, adjectives, verbs, and ad- 
verbs. 

1. He soon fell before the malignant tempter, 
2. They quickly left the scene of their great misfor- 
tune. 3. Those who came to scoff remained to pray. 
4. The congregation went out one by one* to their re- 
spective homes. 5. To cheat is very wrong. 6. 
Working vigorously causes us to become tired. 7. 
There are four genders. 8. Well, I suppose so. 9. 
They went home. 10. There is the rub. 11. Why 
do you ask? 12. We will never say good bye m 
Heaven. 12. Frost forms before the sun rises. 14. 
Wha- goes up must come down. 15. He went to 
France to complete his education. 16. Only one es- 
caped. 



53. Inflection. 

We have learned that the inflection of a part of 
speech is its change of form on account of its properties. 
Thus the noun and pronoun are inflected for gender, 
person, number e. That the adjective is inflected 

for comparison, and also to some extent, for number. 
That the verb is inflected for voice, mode, tense, num- 
ber, and person. That the adverb is inflected for com- 
parison. 

•One by one is ai phrase which Bhould be paised as a 

single word. 



Eastman's Practical Grammar 127 

We now come to the three parts of speech, not in- 
flected at all; the preposition, the conjunction and the 
interjection. 



54. The Preposition. 

1. The Preposition introduces a phrase and 
shows the relation of the object to the word modified 
by the phrase, 

2. The object of a 'preposition may be: 

(a) A word; as, They sent for the doctor. 

(b) A phrase) as, He kicked the cat from under 
the table. 

(c) A clause; as, Have we a clear idea of how birds 

fly? 

3. Some times the preposition may consist of more 
than one word; as, I know nothing as to his character. 

.4. Sometimes the preposition is an expletive, i. 
e., it is merely used to fill out the expression; as, For one 
to lie is base. 

5. "Near," "like,' and "worth" may be parsed as 
prepositions, though they are not logically such. 

6. "A" is a preposition in such words as a-fishing. 

55 Notes on Prepositions. 

1. At is used with reference to a small place, and 
in with reference to a large place; as, I lived at Camp • 
bell; I; live in Dallas, or Boston. 

2. Between is used with two things, and among 
with more than two; as, Between you and me, there 
is no choice among the three. 



128 Eastman's Practical Grammar 

3. During is used when the event continues 
through the whole period, and in, at, or within, when 
it does not continue through the period; as, I labor 
during the day, and rest during the night; I have not 
seen him in the last three days. 

4. Of is used with its object for the possessive 
case; as, Mr. Johnson's house=the house o/Mr. John- 
son. 

5. Into denotes entrance, and in, place of rest; as, 
He was in the house when the child fell into the fire. 

6. To should follow verbs of action instead of at; 
as, He went to the barn; he is at the barn. 

7. From should be used after differ; as, This dif- 
fers from that. With may be used in case of differing in 
opinion. 

8. 0/ is used after the word disappoint, — when 
we fail to obtain a thing and in when we get it and it 
does not suit us; as, I was disappointad of getting a 
house; I was disappointed in that buggy. 

Correct the Error*: 1. Divide it among the 
two girls. 2. We will meet during next week. 3. He 
threw the cat in the well. 4. He lives at New York. 
5. I staid to home. 6. He went d)wn at th* spring. 
7. Between us three there can be no mistake. 



56. Conjunctions. 

Conjunctions connect words, phrases, and 
clauses. 

They are divided according to rank, into co-ordinate 
conjunction*, or those that connect elements of equal 



Eastman's Practical Grammar 129 

rank; and subordinate, or those that connect elements 
of unequal rank. 

They are classed according to meaning, as copula- 
tive, or those that connect additively; and disjunctive, 
or those that connect parts to be considered separately, 
or contrastea ideas. 

The further division into adversative, alternative, 
illative; and causil, temporal, local, etc., is unneces- 
sary to the teaching of the underlying principles of 
English. 

Correlative Conjunctions are used in pairs 
The occurence of the first suggests the second, and 
emphasizes its natural force; as, Both James and John 
have come; Either James or John has come; Though he 
slay me, yet will I trust Him; I do not care whether you 
come or stay. 

Expletive Conjunctions are mere introductory 
words; as, And they did get married. 



57. Interjections. 



Interjections are used without any grammacical 
connection with the sentence. 

They have no meaning within themselves, but are 
merely used for a purpose. 

EXAMPLES. 

(a) They may show the speaker's disgust or con- 
tempt for a thing; as, Pshaw! Tell me no more. 

(b) They may serve as a call; as, Halloo there! 

(c) They may modestly attract attention; as, Ahem 
or hem. 



130 Eastman's Practical Grammar 



(d) They mayaskforarepatition; as, Eh? hey? in- 
deed? 

(e) Amen expresses what applause usually 
does, and hence is an interjection, rather than a re- 
sponsive adverb. 

Yes, and no, express the speaker's assent or 
dissent; and are interjections rather than adverbs. 

Order of Parsing Prepositions: 

1. What part of speech, 

2. What relation it shows. 

Order of Parsing Conjunctions: 

1. What part of speech, 

2. Which cla 

:;. Show what it connects. 

order <>/ ftirsing Interjections: 

1. What part of speech. 

2. For what used, 

3. Tell that it has no grammatical connection with 
the Bentence. 

REVIEW EXERCISE XII. 

A parsing of tfu more difficult constructions previ- 
ously givt /'. 

Required to parse i very word: 

1. The young mar. went to study law in Boston, as 
his father wanted him to he a lawyer. {Him is ob- 
jective subject, to bt is the assumed predicate, lawyer 
is the objective pr idicate.) 

2. The exp >sure gajre my brother a cold. (Broth- 
er is the indirect objecl of gave; often called the 
English dative. | 

:;. o. me. How sad I feel. [Me is objective case 
independent. Sa <l is a predicate adjective, completing 
the predicate and modifying the subject). 

4. Pharaoh made Joseph ruler over all Egypt. 
[Ruler is the objective complement with made, com- 



Eastman's Practical Grammar 131 



pleting the predicate and referring to the same thing as 
the object, Joseph. Joseph is the object of made ruler. 
It is evident that Pharaoh did not make Joseph). 

5. The child is ten years old. {Years is the objec- 
tive case adverbial. It has a two-fold etymology; as a 
noun it is the object of measure, and as an adverb it 
modifies the adjective old. Ten modifies the noun 
nature of years. ) 

6. He lived the life of a Christian, and died the 
death of a martyr. . (Life and death are cognate objects 
of lived and died, respectively.) 

7. The bov flies his kite. {Kite is the object of 
flies. Intransitive verbs may be transitive by use when 
used in a causative sense. Here the boy causes his kite 
to fly.) 

8. 0, Mercy! I cannot bear this, Father. {Mercy 
and Father are nominative independent; the one oy 
exclamation, and the other by address). 

9. Winter having past, the farmers resumed their 
planting. ( Winter is in the nominative absolute, plant- 
ing is a participial noun) . 

10. The horse kicked himself loose from the plow, 
(kicked loose=loosed; hence loose is the complement of 
kicked and as an adjective modifies himself. Himself 
is the object of kicked loose. 

11. If he still lives there, he must be very old. 

12. If he live there you will meet him. (The 
verb in the former of these two sentences, is in the in- 
dicative mode, as it i 3 present tense referrring to pres- 
ent time, if he lives there now; but in the latter, the 
verb is present ten3e refering tD futire time, and is 
subjunctive). 

13. If I was in school, I did not stay there. 

14. If I were in school, I should learn. (If I was 
in school, admits the fact and uses the past tense for 
the past time, hence indicative. If I were in school 
denotes that I am not there and uses the past tense for 
the present time— subjunctive). 



132 Eastman's Practical Grammar 

15. " 'Now. tread we a measure,' said young 
Lochinvar." (Now is an expletive adverb. Tread is a 
verb in the imperative mode, first person, plural, 
agreeing with we for its subject. Said is transitive, 
having a sentence for its object.) 

16. To play is pleasant. (Parse to play as a verb 
used as a noun subject of is.) 

17. To be good is to be happy. ( To be good is the 
subject and to be happy the nominative predicate- 
both are infinitives). 

They sent fcr him to play the violin. (Him is the 
object of for and assumed subject of to play. To play 
is a verb in the infinitive, assumed predicate of him). 

19. It is wrong to steal. (To steal is in apposi- 
tion with it; It. to steal, is wrong.) 

20. "To die! to sleep! Perchance to dream." 
(The infinitives are independent.) 

21. We want him to leave. (The infinitive is an 
objective complement. 



REVIEW QUESTIONS. 7. 

1. THE NOUN. 

1. What is a noun? 2. Name and define the 
classes of the noun? .'!. Name and define the proper- 
ties of the noun? 4. Give examples of the different 
methods of forming the distinctions of sex. 5. Give 
the rules for forming their plurals. 6. Have nouns 
any inflections for person? 7. Give examples of the 
seven nominatives and illustrate them. 8. Name and 
illustrate the four possessives. 9. Name and illustrate 
the ten objective constructions. 

2. THE PRONOUN. 

1. What is a pronoun? 2. Classify and define 
each class. 3. To what cases do we add the words 
set/ and selves to form thecompound personal pronouns? 



Eastman's Practical Grammar 133 



4. For what is the compound personal pronoun, used? 

5. What is said of mine, thine, yours, theirs, etc. 

6. What is a relative pronoun? 7. Classify arid de- 
fine. 8. For what is who used? 9. Which? 10. 
What? 11. When is as a relative? 12. In what cases 
should that be used instead of who or which? 13. 
What limiting adjectives are never pronouns? 14. 
Decline the personal pronouns. 15. The relatives. 16. 
Interrogatives. 

3. ADJECTIVES. 

1. What is an adjective? 2. Classify and define. 
Name and define the properties. 4. Give some adjec- 
tives that have a superlative signification, and hence 
cannot be compared, and 5. Give some such words that 
are compared and explain the distinction. 6. Name 
some adjectives that modify nouns in the singular 
only. 7. In the plural only. 8. What distinc- 
tion exists between a and an, in their use? 9. 
When is a a preposition? 10. When is the an 
adverb? 

4. VERBS. 

1. What is a verb? 2. What is a regular verb? 
3. An irregular verb? 4. A transitive verb? 5. An 
intransitive verb? 6. An auxiliary verb? 7. A 
copula? 8. A defective verb? 9. A redundant verb? 
10. An impersonal verb? 11. A compound verb? 12. 
Illustrate each with an example. 13. Name and define 
the properties of the verb. 14. Name and define the 
modes. 15. Tenses. 16. How many and what tenses 
in the different modes? 17. Give, the different uses 
of the verb in the infinitive mode, and illustrate. 

18. Give examples illustrating the use of the participle. 

19. Conjugate the verb call through all the modes and 
tenses. 

5. ADVERBS. 

1. What is an adverb? 2. Classify and define 
each class. 3. Compare three adverbs. 4. What 



134 Eastman's Practical Grammar 



are interrogative adverbs? 5. Negative adverbs? 6. 
Expletive adverbs? 7- Correlative adverbs? 8. 
Conjunctive adverbs? 

6. PREPOSITIONS. 

1. What is a preposition? 2. What may the 
preposition have for its object? 3. What is an exple- 
tive preposition? 4. Give the eight notes on preposi- 
tions. 

7. CONJUNCTIONS. 

1. Define and classify the conjunctions, as to 
rank and as to meaning. 2. What is a correlative con- 
junction? 3. An expletive conjunction? 4. What is 
the difference between the copulative and disjunctive 
conjunctions? 

8. INTERJECTIONS. 

1. What is an interjection used for? 2. What is 
its relation to the sentence. 



PART III-SYJVTAX 

1. Word Influence. 



Government 



Agreement . 



WORD INFLUE 



STCE.. I 



Rule I. Subject, 

Rule II. Object of verb, . 

Rule III. Object of preposition , 

Rule IV. Possession 

Rule V- Subject of infinitive 



Rul 3 VI . Pronouns , 
Rule VII. Verbs, 
Rule VIII. Apposition, 
Rule IX. Predicate noun, 



RuleX. Adjectives, 

Rule XI. Adverbs, 

Rule XII. Objective adverbial, 



Rule XIII. Prepositions, 
Rule XIV Conjunctions, 



Relation ) g^le XV. Norn, independent, 

I Rule XVI. Interjections, etc. 



Syntax treats of the construction of sentences. 

A Sentence, or proposition, is a collection of 
words expressing a thought. 

The clearness of the conception of a thought de- 
pends upon the government, the agreement, the modifi- 
cation, the relation, the connection, and the position of 
its words, phrases and clauses. 

By Government is meant the influence some 
words have on others in determining their forms and 
properties. 

By Agreement we mean the correspondence some 
words have with others in regard to their forms and 
properties. 

By Modification is meant the influence or limita- 
tion of words upon the meaning, or application of other 
words. 



136 Eastman's Practical Grammar 

By Dependent relation is meant the association 
of ideas, in meaning, force and use. 

By the Independent Relation, we mean the sev- 
erance a word, or a group of words, may have from the 
sentential structure. 

By Connection, we mean expressions employed to 
associate the ideas or thoughts together; or to fill out 
the sentence so as to prevent a break in the harmonious 
flow. 

By Position, we mean the placing of words in the 
sentence in such a way as to bring out the meaning 
with clearness and force. 



2. Illustrations. 

Government: The subject of a finite verb gov- 
erns it in form as to person and number. The verb 
undergoes but little inflection for number and person, 
but what change of form takes place for these proper- 
ties is seen to be in consequence of the number and 
person of the subject. 

We write the sentence, Boys swim. Now, when 
we make the subject singuiar, the verb must change 
as, The boy swims. In the first sentence the verb has 
the plural form, swim. In the second it has the singu- 
lar form, swims. This because of the influence or 
government of the subject. 

In the sentence, A man, a woman, and a child were 
there, the dural form of the verb is used because the 
subject is plural, consisting of three. Take the same 
sentence, only changing the adjective, using a distribu- 
tive for the article: Each man, each woman, and each 
child was there. Here we see that the word each ex- 
presses a distribution, taking the subject with refer- 



Eastman's Practical Grammar 137 

ence to its separate parts; and it now requires a verb 
in the singular. This is a government exerted by the 
adjective, through the subject, upon the verb. 

In the sentence, That boy swims well, when we 
change the noun boy to the plural, boys, it necessitates 
a change in the adjective from that to those. This in- 
fluence is called government. Again the boy is sick. 
Let us insert after the noun boy another noun meaning 
a different person or thing; as, The boy's father is 
sick. The word father being brought in necessitates a 
change of form in the word boy; thus, The boy's father 
is sick. The word father governs the boy, putting it in 
the possessive case. Likewise a preposition, a transi- 
tive verb, or participle, governs the object of the action 
or relation, requiring it to be in the objective case. ,. ; 

AGREEMENT. 

In the examples given above, the changes of 
form that the verb underwent through the 
influence of the subject was in order that it might have 
the same number and person as its subject. This cor- 
respondence is called agreement. Likewise the demon- 
strative adjective has the singular form when its noun 
is singular; as, That boy; and it has the plural form 
when the noun is plural; as, These boys. These ad- 
jectives agree with their nouns in number. 

MODIFICATION. 

Adjectives modify nouns and pronouns by- 
supplying quality or description, or by limiting 
the application of the noun; as, apple, red apple, large 
red apple, this large red apple. Each word here intro- 
duced gives additional meaning. 

Red apple gives us more knowledge of the subject 
than merely apple. Large red apple gives still more; 



133 Eastman's Practical Grammar 



asd the word this limits the application of the noun 
apple, to a certain apple, as distinct from others. The 
Modification of the adverb is like that of the adjective, 
except that it applies its influence to verbs, adjectives 
and other adverbs. 

RELATION. 

Dependent Relation: In, John ran -the house, 
we do n jt know what relation the act of running sus- 
tains to the house. It mav have been around the house 
or out of the h >use, or from the house, etc. But when 
we say John ran into the house we know exactly the 
relation, and that this relation is harmoniously associat- 
ed with the other ideas expressed. Such relation is 
called depend* nt. 

Independent Relation: in the sentence, Mary, 

you may go to your seal; we find that the idea. Mart/, 
is related to the sentence but forms no part of it. Such 
is independent relation. 

CONNECTIVE Relation: "1 have trinkets and 
tresses of hair." Here and associates the idea of trin- 
kf-ts and tresses in a conn:cted manner. In the sen- 
tence. John or James will come, they are not thus ad- 
dliivrhi connected; but, the word or preventsa break in 
the hormonous flow o\' the Bentence, and in this sense 
connects the parts but it expresses a separation in the 

is; [fone come the other will not 

POSITION. 

Can you place the words. Bees make honey, so as 
to make che m sahing clearer or more forcible? 

Take the sentence, Good books only teach the prop. 
per use of books, which is the meaning, That pood 



Eastman's Practical Grammar 139 

books do nothing except to teach the proper use Of 
books, or, That good books alone, teach the proper use 
of books? Evidently the latter. If we take the word 
only from its present position, and place it at tlie 
beginning, the meaning will be clear, Only good booTts 
teach the proper use of books. 

In the sentence, "To-day shalt thou be with me in 
paradise," observe that the position of the words re- 
semble a question. On this account, some have mis- 
taken this for a question, thinking the interrogation 
point had been ommitted by mistake. If we change 
the position, or order of the words, the meaning will be 
clear; thus, "To-day thou shalt be With me in paradise." 



3.. Rules of Syntax. 

OF GOVERNMENT. 

Rule 1. The subject of \a sentence- is in the norm- 
native case, and governs ■ the- verb in person and 
number. . ■ . • 

Remark 1. Anything that may b3 used as a nyim 
may be the subject of a sentence; as, Is is a verb. 

Remark 2. The subject is often omitted; as, 
Come and see. - . 

Remark 3. The subject and copula are omitted 
after if, while, though, than, etc.; as. I will g) if [I 
am] not prevented; He fell asleep while [he was] 
smoking, etc. 

Position: 1. The subject usually precedes the 
verb; as, Solomon was wise. 



140 Eastman's Practical Grammar 

2. The subject is placed after the verb, (a) In 
the imperative mode; as, Go thou and do likewise, (b) 
After the expletive there; as, There was a man. (c) 
In questions; as, "Come ye in peace or come ye in 
war?" 

The subject is placed between the verb and its 
auxiliary: (a) la questions containing auxiliaries; 
as, Shall man be more just than God? (b) In the 
subjunctive mode when if is omitted; as, Had I known 
him better, I should now be safe, (c) When a wish 
ia expressed in the potential mode; as, May God 
bless you. 

3. Use: When the nominative is used, it must be 
the subject of a finite verb, in all cases except the nom- 
inative predicate after an intransitive verb, or 
after a participle, or in a independent construction, 
or in apposition. 

4. Pleonasm should not be used except in strone 
emphasis, or in poetry; as, Milton he was blind. 

The subject should not be omitted when it would 
improve the sentence to use it. 

Correct the errors and pane all the subjects, (jiving 
the rule. 

1. Him and I went. 2. I am older than him or 
her. 3. Me and Mary played together as children. 4. 
Whom besides I did you slander? 5. Who is there? Me. 
6. He is as good as her. 7. You are no better than 
me. 8. Us girls will go. 9. Apples is ripe now. 10. 
I who am before you is the man. 11. Who did he 
come with? 12. Martha, she is a fine girl. 13. Hope 
to see you soon. 

RULE II. Transtive verbs and participle* govern 
the objective case. 






Eastman's Practical Grammar 141 

Remark 1. Verbs that are intranstive by nature 
are used transitively: (a) When used in a causative 
sense; as, He Hies his kite; That is, he causes the kjte 
to fly. (b) When the object is of kindred signification 
to the verb; as, He ran a race. 

Remark 2. Some verbs in governing an object re- 
quire a complement; as, He made the wall white. Here 
it is not supposed he made the wall, but merely whitened 
it. Made white tells what was done to the wall. In 
the same way a noun may be used as the complement 
of the verb; as They made McKinley president. They 
did not make McKinley, but they elected=(made pres- 
ident) him. 

Remark 3. Participial nouns may govern objects; 
as, Sawing wood is hard work. 

Remark 4. There may be several objects governed 
by the same verb or participle; as, I see men, women 
and children. 

Remark 5. The rule applies to verbs in the active 
voice; but a verb in the passive voice sometimes takes 
an object. This occurs as follows: In a sentence con- 
taining both a direct and an indirect object when in 
the active form, if it be made passive, and the in- 
direct object be taken for the subject, it leaves the 
direct object still to be governed by the verb; as, You 
taught me grammar, I was taught grammar by you. 

Correct the errors: 1. Who did you see? 2. 
They sent for Mary and I. 3. Let you and I go. 4. 
He Who is guilty should be punished, not I. 5. I saw 
she and him in conversation. 

Rule III. The object of a preposition must be in 
the objective case. 

Remark 1. Anything that can be used as a noun 
may be the object of a preposition. 



142 Eastman's Practical Grammar 

Examples: That word ends in X. He came from 
behind the house. We know but little of how he did it. 
I shall go away from here. 

Remark 2. Some words combine with the prepo- 
sitions to form inseparable phrases; as, hi vain, etc. 

Position. The preposition is generally placed be- 
fore the object. 

Exceptions: | (a) In interrogative sentences, es- 
pecially when the object is an interrogative pronoun; 
as, Whom did he send for? Such expressions are in- 
elegant; better, For whom did he send, (b) In 
poetry the order is often inverted; as, "From crag to 
crag, the rattling peaks among, leaps the live thunder.'' 
"Come walk with me the jungle through." 

Remark 3. Prepositional Phrases should be so 
placed as to render [the [meaning clear. I rented a 
house from a man with seven gables. This would im- 
ply that the man had seven gables. Say, 1 rented a 
house with seven gables from a man. 

Remark 1. A preposition should never be placed 
between a verb and its object: as, You shall not want 
/<>/• anything. Say. You shall not want anything. 

Correct the Errors'. 1. His servants ye are to 
whom ye obey. 2. The Northern army did not want 
for supplies. 3. Whom did they send for? 4. It is 
our duty to visit and sympathize with the needy. 5. 
It is furnished to. and for. the benefit of the poor. 6. 
I saw a boy catching a chicken with black pants on. 
7. I could see that the horse had been curried with 
half an eye. 8. They sent for Mary and I. 9. Be- 
tween you ; nd I, he is a rascal. 

Rule IV. THa possessive case is governed by the 
noun it modifies: 



Eastman's Practical Grammar 143 

Remark 1. The possessive is placed immediately 
before the noun it modifies, except when an adjective 
intervenes; as, Ladies' gray gloves. 

Remark 2. We may substitute for the possessive, 
the noun in the objective after the preposition of; as, 
Mr. Smith's residence. The residence of Mr. Smith. 

Remark 3. Two or more nouns denoting common 

possession, take the sign after the last only; as, John 

and William's father (brothers); but when the posses- 

, sion is not common, each takes the siern; as, James' 

and Joseph's father. 

Remark 4. When a noun contains more than one 
hissing sound, the (') only is used as the sign of pos- 
session; as, Moses' law, Jesus' love, etc. 

Remark 5. The ('s) is not used in pronouns, except 
the adjective pronouns, one and other. One's; other's. 

Remark 6. The noun modified is sometimes omitted 
as, I bought these at Mr. Jones' (store). 

Remark 7. A noun in apposition with the posses- 
sive, usually takes the sign, but not always; as, Paul, the 
apostle's, conversion; This was Pike's opinion, the 
most eminent lawyer in the South. 

Remark 8. There should be no intervening words 
between the possessive and the name of the thing pos- 
sessed, when it can be avoided; as, She praised the 
farmer's, as she called him, excellent understanding. 

Remark 9. It is not well to unite two or more 
possessives in succession; as, Simon's wife's mother, etc. 

Remark 10. Compound words take the sign at the 
last; as, A mother-in-law's rule. 

Correct the errors and parse the possessives, giving 
the rule: 

1. The boy's report was accepted. 2. The 



144 Eastman* s Practical Grammar 

daughter-in-law's behavior was not the best. 3. It 
was now the tramp's, as she thought him, time to speak. 
4. Mary and Ellens arithmetics did not agree. 5. 
Susan's brother's wife's feelings were hurt. 6. That 
horse is you all's. 7. It's song was sweet. 8. The 
Bishop's of Dublin's palace. 9. Hi's foot is larger 
than your's. 10. The mens' courage failed. 11. Those 
elegant ladie's gloves were burned. 12. New York and 
Chicago's water works differ. 13. I bought these at 
Boyd's & Co's. 

Rule V. The subject of the infinitive is put in the 
objective case. 

Remark 1. When the subject of an infinitive is also 
the subject of a finite verb, it is in the nominative case; 
as, I want to go; I expect to meet him. In such cases, 
there is nothing said of the subject of the infinitive, in 
parsing. 

Remark 2. The objective subject may be goverened 
by a transitive verb or its participle, or by a prepo- 
sition; as, We wanted him to leave us; We sent for him 
to wait upon the sick. 

Remark 3. Other infinitives and participles have 
constructions of nouns, adjectives, and adverbs, in 
their various relations. 
feel, sci. hear, let, make, need, etc, the sign to is omitted 

Remark 4. After the active voice of bid, dare. 
with the infinitive. 

Remark 5. The infinitive always retains its verbal 
nature, so that as a noun, it may be modified by a pred- 
icate adjective, or take a predicate nominative after 
the verb of which it is subject, and, at the same time, 
govern an object, and be modified by an adverb; as, 



Eastman's Practical Grammar 145 

To squander money needlessly, is wrong. 

Remark 6. The sign to should not be separated 
from the verb; as, To truthfully state a thing. 

Remark 7. The sign to should not be used alone; 
as, I have never worked, and I never intend to. 

Remark 8. Some grammarians say that the infin- 
itive is not a verb; but as it is regular or irregular, 
transitive or intransitive, and has voice, mode, tense, 
governs objects, and is modified by adverbs, it certainly is 
a verb. 

Correct the errors: 1. What went ye out for to 
see? 2. I have always labored and always expect to. 
3. To carelessly make one's toilet is inexcusable. 4. 
I bade him to come to me. 5. I saw the cai to catch 
the rat (correct if it is meant that I saw the proper cat 
for catching that rat). 6. I have known him to fre- 
quently leave home. 7. You need not to remain long. 
8. I intended to have written to you. 9. I intended 
to write to you before train time. 10. They had hoped 
to have seen you before they left. 

Parse the infinitives: 1. To be good is to be 
happy. 2. I wish to be good. 3. They are to visit 
us soon. 4. They ordered him to leave. 5. It was 
his delight for her to play with him. 6. We wanted 
him to be a lawyer. 7. He is the very man to do that 
work. 8. James will go to the university to finish his 
education. 9. To speak plainly, I do not like him. 

RULES OF AGREEMENT. 

RULE VI. Pronouns agree ivith their antecedents in 
gender, number and person. 

Remark 1. When a collective noun is used 



146 Eastman's Practical Grammar 



with reference to the individuals, a pronoun referring 
to it must be in the plural number; as, The committee 
disagreed as to what they should report. 

Remark 2. When a collective noun is used with 
reference to the collection rather then the individuals, 
the pronoun must be in the singular; as, The company 
had its orders. 

Remark 3. When theie are two or more antece- 
dents connected by and, the pronoun must be in the 
plural number; as, The man and the lion went their 
way. 

Remark 4. When two or more antecedents are 
connected by or, or nor, the pronoun must be in the 
singular number; as, Neither temperance nor prudence 
had its reward. 

Remark 5. When the two antecedents are of 
different genders, it is improper to use a singular, mas- 
culine pronoun referring to them; as, No boy or girl 
should neglect his lessons. Better substitute a 
noun of the common gender, and then use the mascu- 
line pronoun in the singular; as, No pupil (boy or girl) 
should neglect his lessons. 

Remark 6. When two or more nouns express the 
different characters of the same person, a pronoun re- 
ferring to them should be in the singular number; as, A 
good husband and father has gone to his rest. 

Remark 7. When objects are taken together and 
the nouns and pronouns are of different persons, the 
plural pronoun referring to them must be of the first 
person if one of the antecedents is of the first person; 
but if the first is not included, the pronoun must be of 
the second person; as, John and you and I must go to 
our work: or. You and John must go to your work. 



Eastman's Practical Grammar 147 

Remark 8. The pronouns must be singular when 
their antecedents are modified by each, every, either, 
neither, many a, such a, etc. 

Remark 9. It is often used to refer to the smaller 
animals and to children. The child hurt its finger; The 
cat washes its face with its paw. 

Remark 10. As subject of the verb be, it may refer 
to a noun or pronoun in the predicate, of either number 
and of any person; as, It is I; It is you; It is he; It is 
men we want. 

Remark 11. It is used impersonally, i. e. , without 
any definite antecedent, in such sentences as, It rains: 
I hope it will not go hard with him. 

Remark 12. It is sometimes an expletive; as, 

Come and trip it as yon go. 

On the light fantastic toe.— Milton. 

Remark 13. Relatives and interrogatives should 
be placed at the beginning of their clauses; or as nearly 
so as possible; This is the man that I saw. 

Remark 14. The relative is often omitted; This is 
the man I saw. 

Remark 15. The relative who. refers to persons, or 
things personified; which refers to animals, and to in- 
animate objects; that refers to either persons, animals, 
or objects. 

Remark 16. The relative that, should be used in. 
stead of which or who (a) after adjectives in the super- 
lative degree; (b) after all, very and same; (c) after 
two antecedents, one requiring who, and the other 
which. The man and the monkey that I saw; The 
wisest man that lives; The same man that, etc. 

Remark 17. The relative what is used in prefer- 



148 Eastman's Practical Grammar 



ence to which when the antecedent is omitted; Take 
(the things) what you want. 

Remark 18. The compound relatives, whoever, 
whichever and whosoever, etc., are used in preference to 
the simple relatives when the antecedent is omitted, 
though who is often so used; Whoever asks will be 
heard=The person who asks, etc. In such sentences 
the compound relatives relate to their antecedents un- 
derstood. 

Remark 19. It is inelegant to use the solemn and 
familiar styles of pronoun in the same sentence; as, 
Thou art beautiful, but I hate you. 

Remark 20. Care should be taken to avoid ambig- 
uity in the use of pronouns: John told James that his 
father was sick. Whose father is meant here? Better 
use the language of the Bpeaker thus, John said to 
James, my (or your) father is sick. 

Correct tfu errors and parse the pronouns: 1. 
Every person Bhould be careful in handling their 
m >ney. 2. Rebecca took goodly rai nent and put them 
upon Jacob. 3. Every man retur led to their homes. 
•1. I felt his pulse and they beat 125 times in a minute. 
5. The man that sold me them molasses, said they 
o«..l. 6. Susan as well as Mary have lost their 
dolls. 7. A man may see a metaphor or an allegory in 
a picture as well as t<» read them in a book. 8. I hope 
your mother or father will favor us with their company 
soon. !>. This is the tree whom I planted. 10. She 
is the prettiest woman who ever came here. 11. 
The lady and the poodle who were in the carriage. 
12. He is the very man whom I met on the way. 
1 •"•. The lady whom we saw today, and that was at 
our house yesterday has been seriously hurt. 14. 



Eastman's Practical Gram-mar 149 

Smith told Jones that his hogs were in his corn. 15. 
He is the man that had the buggy what I told you of. 

Rule VII. A finite verb agrees with its subject in 
person and number. 

Remark 1. Except in the solemn style and the 
verb be there is but little inflection of the English verb 
for person and number. Indeed there is none, except 
in the indicative mode, present tense, third person, 
where the verb adds s in the singular. 

Remark 2. When a collective noun is the subject 
of a verb, the verb must be plural if the individuals 
are referred to, and singular if the collection, and not 
the individuals, is indicated; as, The army were seek- 
ing homes in private families; The army was well or- 
ganized. 

Remark 3. The finite verb, having two or more 
subjects connected oy and must be in the plural, un- 
less the nouns express different characters of the same 
person; Father and motner were there. An honest 
man and useful citizen has left the town, in the person 
of Mr. Johnson. Our president is dead: a Christian 
man and a noble patriot has gone to his final home. 

Remark 4. A finite verb, having two or more 
singular subjects connected by a disjunctive conjunc- 
tion, must be singular. Either a letter or a package is 
in the office for you. 

Remark 5. Every finite verb must have a sub- 
ject expressed or understood. 

Remark 6. When the subject is a mere word, or 
a phrase or a clause, the verb must be singular; as, 
They is a pronoun; Horses is a .noun; To play is 
pleasant; That he should prove false is improbable. 



150 Eastman's Practical Grammar 

Remark 7. A finite verb having several subjects 
modified by a distributive adjective, must be singular; 
as, Every shrub, every flower, and every blade of 
grass ivas destroyed. "Full many a flower is born to 
blush unseen." 

Remark 8. A very common error is to make the 
verb plural, notwithstanding the subject is singular, 
when a prepositional phrase intervenes, the object of 
which is plural; as, The train with all its passengers 
were lost. Here train is the subject and the verb 
should be teas lost. 

Comet the errors and parst the verbs: 1. The 
committee were appointed. 2. The corporation is in- 
dividually responsible. 3. The hogs has been fed. 
4. The board of trustees have a meeting tonight. 5. 
Many a person were disappointed. 6. A good soldier 
and noble patriot were killed. 7. War or pestilence 
were sure to prevail. 8. John, and also James, were 
there. 9. A collection of valuable prizes were dis- 
tributed. 10. The boys or I am going. 11. Boys are 
noun. 

Rule VIII. A noun or a pronoun, used' to explain 
or identify another noun or pronoun, is in the *ame 

'-.'/ apposition. 

Remark 1. The position of an appositive is imme- 
diately after the noun or pronoun modified, though it 
is sometimes placed elsewhere. 

Remark 2. A noun may be in apposition with a 
sentence; as, I promise to love and cherish a resolu- 
tion I have ever kept. An appositive may be a phrase 
or a sentence; as, To b< or n>>t to be, that is the ques- 
tion; Remember the golden rule: "Whatsoever ye 



Eastman's Practical Grammar 151 

would that men should do unto you, do ye even so to 
them." 

Remark 4. Sometimes the appositive is introduced 
by as, denoting rank, office or capacity; as, Mr. Smith, 
as my agent, bought the cotton. 

Remark 5. Sometimes the appositive is introduced 
by or, denoting an equivalent; as, The llama or South 
American camel, etc. 

Remark 6. A word repeated for poetic measure 
or for emphasis, should not be regarded as an apposi- 
tive unless it modifies the word after which it is placed. 

Remark 7. The compound terms, Mississippi 
river, Old Carolina State, etc. , need not be separated 
into a noun and an appositive, but may be regarded as 
a single word. 

Correct and parse the appositives: 1. Will you 
reject me; I whom you have known so long? 2. Who 
is this doctor; him you like so well? 3. I sent it to 
Mrs. Banks; she who lives across the street. 4. Joe 
Brown, him whom you punished was not to be blamed. 

Rule IX. Intransitive verbs and verbs in the 
passive voice, may have the same case after them as be- 
fore them, when both ivords refer to the same thing. 

Remark 1. A noun or pronoun in the predicate 
after a finite verb must be in the nominative case; but 
after an infinitive and after an intransitive participle, 
the predicate noun may be either nominative or objec- 
tive; as, I told John to be a good boy; John is said to 
be a good boy; Jones being a good lawyer soon found 
a strong defense. 

Remark 2. A predicate noun or pronoun usually 
follows the verb; but it sometimes precedes it: (a) 



152 Eastman's Practical Grammar 



In interrogative sentences; as, Who are you? (b) 
"The wages of sin is death." 

• Correct the errors and parse the predicate nouns 
and pronouns: 1. It is me. 2. We thought it was 
her. 3. I took it to be he. 4. If I was him I wou!d 
want it to be she. 5. Who did you say he was? 6. 
You thought it was me. 7. Whom do men say that I 
am? 8. If it had been me I would have quit. 9. His 
being a teacher* seems very strange. 10. I did not 
dream of their being robbers. 11. His father wants 
him to be a lawyer. 

RULES OF MODIFICATION. 

Rule \. Adjectives and participles modify nouns 
and pronouns, 

Remark 1. An adjective used to complete the pred- 
icate may modify the subject; as, The fields were green] 
To lie is sinful, That all men were created equal is 
untrut . 

Remark 2. An adjective may be used to complete 
the predicate and modify the object; as, I found the 
fields 0r< 

Remark 3. After infinitives and participles, adjec- 
tives are frequently used that do not modify any noun 
or pronoun expressed; as, "To be good is to be happy. " 
"The main secret of being sublime is to say great 
things in few and plain words. " These adjectives may 
be made to modify nouns understood; as, For a per- 
son to be good is for a person to be happy. 

Remark 4. Such adjectives as are inflected for 



•When the subject of a participle is in the possessive case, the predi- 
cate noun may not agree with it in case. 



Eastman's Practical Grammar 153 



number, must agree with the noun they modify; as, 
That kind; those kinds; one man; two men. 

Remark 5. A singular adjective may precede a 
collected number; as, Every seven years. 

Remark 6. By poetic license, the adjective may 
be used for the adverb; as, 

"They fall successive and successive rise . ' ' 

Remark 7. Adjectives are used as nouns; The 
good shall inherit eternal life. 

Remark 8. Adjectives derived from proper 
nouns are called proper adjectives, and should begin 
with capital letters; The French, the English etc. 

Remark 9. Of the demonstratives, this and these 
refer to something near the speaker, and that and those 
to something remote; also, in contrasted expresbions, 
that refers to the first mentioned and this to the last 
mentioned; as, Money and prayer accomplish much ; that 
moves mankind, this, God and his angels. 

Remark 10. Each, every, either, neither, such a, 
many a, etc., modify nouns in the singular. 

Either and neither refer to two things only; as, 
Either of the two roads; neither of the two men. Any 
and none are used when more than two are meant. 

Remark 11. Ordinals should precede cardinals; as» 
The first four pages; not the four first pages. 

Remark 12. The article a or an and the are placed 
before other adjectives; as, The large red apple; the 
white cow. 

An is used immediately before vowel sounds, and a 
before consonant sounds; i. e., The word, whether a 
noun or other part of speech, which immediately fol 
lows an must begin with the vowel sound, or else a 
must be used instead of an. 



154 Eastman's Practical Grammar 

Remark 13. A or an modifies a noun in the singu- 
la**: The, a noun in the plural or singular. A man; the 
man; the men. 

A or an refers to no particular thing; the to some 
particular thing. Note the difference in meaning of, 
The son of a king, and A son of the kin^.. 

Remark 14. The should be used to modify a gen- 
eric noun, i. e., names denoting a race or kind; as, The 
lion (not a lion) is a native of Africa. The negro is 
black. 

Remark 15. When two or more adjectives refer 
to the same noun the article is used bafore the first; as. 
A black and white cow. When they refer to separate 
nouns, expressed or understood, the article must be 
placed before each; as, The black, and the white cow. 

Remark 16. When two or more nouns are connect- 
ed by and, the article is placed before the first only; as, 
The buys and girls; but when connected by or or nor 
the articles are used with each; as, The boys or the 
girls. 

Remark 17. In comparison, wtiera both words re- 
fer to the same person or thing, the article is used be- 
fore the first only; as, He is a better blacksmith than 
teacher. 

Remark is. A before few and little gives an affirm- 
ative meaning while the emission of it actually 
emphasizes their meaning. 

He had a few friends implies the tact that he had 
some friends; He had few friends, implies thac they 
were very few. 

Remark 19. The comparative degree of an adjec- 
tive is used when two things are compared, and the 
superlative when three or more are meant. 



Eastman's Practical Grammar 155 



The following is incorrect: Of the two epic poets, 
Homer and Virgil, Homer was the most original. Say, 
Homer was the more original. 

Remark 20. The latter term of a comparison must 
exclude the former when the comparative is used, and 
include it wheri the superlative is used. If we say, The 
United States is more powerful than any republic, we 
make it more powerful than itself. We should say, The 
United States is more powerful than any other republic. 
To use the superlative we would say, The United States 
is the most powerful of all republics. 

Remark 21. Errors often occur in, 

(a) Misplacing adjectives; as, A hot cup of coffee. 

(b) Using adverbs for adjectives; as, They landed 
safely. 

(c) Using adjectives for adverbs; as, He reads 
very distinct. 

(d) Double comparison; as, More sooner; most 
unkindest. 

(e) Using them for these; as, them marbles. 

(f) Using this here and that there, for this and 
that. 

■ (g) -Using 'the plural of this and that for the sing- 
ular; as, All- these kind of things. 

Correct the errors and parse the adjectives: 
1. He has not a enemy in the world. 2. An har- 
bor was reached. 3. We waited a hour. 4. He 
bought an old and young horse. 5. An elm puts forth 
its foliage earlier than an oak. 6. He is a better 
mathematician than a musician. 7. These sort of 
mornings are unpleasant. 8. Those kind of hens are 
like ours. 9. That barrel will hold five bushel. 10. 
It is three mile to town. 11. She appeared splendidly. 



156 Eastman's Practical Grammar 



12. Samson was stronger than any man. 13. Lying 
is the meanest of all other vices. 14. He is the best 
man of the two. 15. I want afresh sack of flour. 16. 
A red large apple. 17. Put up them toys. 18. Each 
may enter in their turn. 19. No pupil will be allowed 
to cut their desks. 20. He speaks slow. 

Rule XI. Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives and 
other adverbs. 

Remark 1. The adverb should be so placed as to 
give the proper meaning with clearness, for~e and 
euphony. 

Remark 2. Sometimes adverbs perform the office 
of adjectives; as, He is the only man. 

Remark :*>. Adverbs may limit phrases and clauses; 
as, He swam nearly across the river', Verily I say unto 
you. 

Remark I. )'<.-■_ no, and amen may be parsed as 
responsive adverbs modifying the whole sentence to 
which they respond; but they have every characteristic 
of interjections, and should be parsed as such. 

Remark 5. The conjunctive adverb connects like a 
conjunction, introduces a clause (usually an adverb 
clause), and modifies a word in each of the clauses con- 
nected. Sometimes, however, it introduces an adjec- 
tive clause and modifies in only one. 

This may be determined by expanding it into 
equivalent phrases; as, He fought till he died=He 
fought until the time at which he died. Since one of 
these phrases modifies fought, and the other died, till 
modifies both words. He lives at the place where my 
father died. In this sentence, where introduces an 



Eastman's Practical Grammar 157 

adjective clause and will expand into but one phrase; 
hence it modifies in one clause only. This occurs when 
a conjunctive adverb follows a noun. 

Remark 6. Two negatives are equivalent to an 
affirmative. If I never said nothing I said something. 

Sometimes it is well to use double negatives; as, 
He is not disinterested; but, usually, double negatives 
should be avoided. 

Remark 7. Avoid using no for not; as. I have for- 
gotten whether it is so or no. 

Remark 8. Like is a CDnjunctive adverb when 
actions are compared but when objects are compared it 
is a preposition. He walks like (or as) his father 
(walks) ; He is like his father. 

It may be said of like, that it is a preposition for 
convenience, rather than in fact; for it is really an ad- 
jective in such constructions; and to or unto is under- 
stood, and sometimes .expressed after it; as, The 
Kingdom of Heaven is like unto, etc. 

Remark 9. Adverbs are frequently mere exple- 
tives. When there is so used it changes the order of 
the subject and predicate, placing the subject after the 
predicate; as, There was a boy. 

Correct the errors and parse the adverbs: 1. He 
won't give me no peace. 2. We didn't find nothing. 3. 
Velvet feels smoothly. 4. Speak slow and distinct. 
5. She looked beautifully. 6. You did splendid. 7. 
I am tolerable well, thank you. 8. His voice sounds 
harshly. 9. I care not whether it is he or no. 10. 
They reached land safely. 11. God only deserves 
praise. 

Rule XII. Nouns denoting when, tvhere, to what 
extent, are in the objective case adverbial. 



158 Eastman's Practical Grammar 

Examples: He will go home tomorrow; Mary is 
ten years old. 

Rule XIII. Prepositions connect words, and show 
the relation between them. 

Remark 1. A preposition may be used as an ad- 
verb; as God dwells above. 

Remark 2. A preposition may be used as a mere 
expletive; as, For one to be refused, is embarassing. 

Remark 3. The sentence should not end with a 
preposition when it is possible to avoid it; as Whom 
did he send for? 

Remark 4. Avoid the superfluous use of the 
preposition; as, Where did my ball roll to? 

Remark 5. Care should be taken to select the 
proper prepositions. 

Remark 6. The object of a preposition may be a 
word; as, In (own; or a i phrase; as. From behind the 
houst , or it may be a sentence; as, 1 have a poor notion 
of how, they pick cotton. 

Remark 7. Several words may serve as one prep- 
osition; as, I know nothing as to his education; I failed 
on account </bad weather. 

Comet the errors and parse the prepositions: 

1. They are perishing for thirst. 2. He went in 
the house. 3. The cat jumped on the table. 4. I 
staid to home. 5. He lives at Dallas. 6. We do not 
compare this climate to that, 7. A father divided his 
estate between his four sons. 8. The brothers differ 
widely with each other. 9. He turned away from the 
scene with anger. 

Rule XIV. Conjunctions connect words, phrases 
and clnns,<\ 



Eastman's Practical Grammar 159 



Remark 1. The position of the conjunction is 
usually between the parts it connects, but subordinate 
and correlative conjunctions often introduce sentences; 
as, If he go, I shall remain; Either you or I must go. 

Remark 2. Co-ordinate conjunctions connect ele- 
ments of equal rank; subordinate conjunctions connect 
an element of inferior rank to one of superior rank; as, 
Ceasar crossed the Rubicon and advanced toward 
Rome. I left the place because it was unhealthful. 

Remark 3. Expletive conj motions are used with- 
out any connecting force; as, And it came to pass in 
those days, etc. ; So you an* going to the West. 

Remark 4. Careshoul.i be taken in the use of 
correlatives to employ pairs that correspond. 

Remark 5. A conjunction may consist of more 
than one word; as, James as well as John was to 
blame. 

Remark 6. The connectives are, conjunctions, 
conjunctive adverbs, relative pronouns, and preposi- 
tions. 

Correct the errors and 'parse the conjunctions: 1. 
I do not know if he is coming or not. 2. He looks as 
thouerh he were, hungry. 3. Neither James or I will 
go. 4. He could not help but to learn. 



INDEPENDENT RELATION. 

Rule XV. A noun or pronoun used independently 
is in the nominative case. 

Remark 1. The personal pronoun of the first per- 
son, used independently, is put in the objective case; as, 
Ah me! me! 



160 Eastman's Practical Grammar 

Remark 2. The noun or pronoun is nominative 
independent, 

(a) By address; as, Mother, come back. 

(b) By pleonasm; as, John, he was a piper's son. 

(c) By exclamation; as, misery, must I en- 
dure it? 

(d) Nominative absolute with a participle; as, 
Peace being declared, the army was disbanded. 



RULES OF SYNTAX. 

RULES OF GOVERNMENT. 

Rule I. Tin subject of a sentence is in (he nomi- 
ruttive cas\ . "ml gov( rns tin verb in i» rson and number. 

Rule II. 7'< *erbs and participles govern 

Hi, object 

RULE HI. / rition must he in the 

object 

Rule IV. Thepo, case is governed by the 

word if n 

Rule V. TJu eubjectofth ■ is put in the 

objectivi cast . 

REEMENT. 

Rule VI. /' .//•' with their antecedents 

Rule VII. with its subject in 

. ,- and person. 

Rule VIII. orpronoun, used to explain or 

identify another noun or pronoun, is in tin- sanu 
by apposition. 



Eastman's Practical Grammar 161 

Rule IX. Intransitive verbs and verbs in the pas- 
sive voice, may have the same case after them as before 
them where both words refer to the same thing. 

RULES OF MODIFICATION. 

Rule X. Adjectives and participles modify nouns 
and pronouns. 

Rule XI. Adverbs modify verbs, participles, ad- 
jectives, and other adverbs. 

Rtle XII. Nouns denoting when, where, to what 
extent, are in the objective case adverbial. 

FULES OF CONNECTION. 

Rule XIII. Prepositions connect ivords, and show 
the relation between them. 

Rule XIV. Conjunctions connect ivords, phrases, 
and clauses. 

independent relation. 

Rule XV. A noun or a pronoun used independently 
is in the nominative case. 

Rule XVI. Intellections and expletives have no 
grammatical connection with the sentence. 



REVIEW QUESTIONS. 

1. What is syntax? 2. What is a sentence? 3. 
A proposition. 4. Of what may a sentence consist? 
5. On what does clearness of the conception of a 
thought, expressed in many words, depend? 6. De- 
fine government, 7. Agreement. 8. Modification. 9. 
Dependent and independent relation. 10. Connection 
and position. 11. Give the substance of the illustrations 



162 Eastman's Practical Grammar 

of these terms. 12. Give rule I. 13. What may be 
used as a subject? J 4. Is the subject always ex- 
pressed? 15. When may both subject and copula be 
omitted? 16. Position of subject? 17. When may 
the subject follow the verb? 18. When between the 
verb and the auxiliary? 19. When may a nominative 
be something besides the subject? 20. Give rule II. 
21. In what two ways may verbs be transitive or in- 
transitive? 22. In what two ways may intransitive 
verbs be used transitively? 23. Give examples. 24. 
Give the substance of remark 2, rule I. Give an ex- 
ample of a participial noun governing an object. 26. 
Explain how a verb in the passive voice may be made 
to take an object. 27. Give rule III. 28. What 
may be used as the object of a preposition? 29. Give 
examples. 30. 'live an example of an inseparable 
phrase. 31. Position of the preposition. 32. Give 
exception. 33. (Jive two errors in the position of a 
prepositional phrase. 34. Of the preposition. 35. 
Give rule IV. 36. What is the position of the possess- 
ive? 37. Give an exception. .''.8. What other way 
of expressing possession? 39. In case of common 
possession, how is the sign used? 40. When is 
the (') only, used? 41. Do pronouns take the \s? 42. 
How is the sign used in case of apposition. 43. What 
is said of intervening words between the possessive 
and the name of the thing posessed? 44. What of 
uniting two or more possessives together? 45. How 
form the possessive of compounds. 46. Give rule V. 
47. Give an example of the infinitive with the nomina- 
tive for its subject. 48. By what may the objective 
subject be governed? 49. What eight constructions 
may an infinitive have? (See etymology.) 50. After 
what verbs is "to" of the infinitive, omitted? 51. 
Give the substance of remark 5, rule V. 52. Also re- 
marks 6, and 7. 53. Why should the infinitive be 
considered a verb? 

RULES OF AGREEMENT. 

1. Give rule VI. 2. W T hen should a plural pro- 



Eastman's Practical Grammar 163 

noun refer to a collective noun? 3. When a singular 
pronoun ? 4. Give the substance of remarks 5, 6, 7, 
and 8, under rule VI. 5. Give the uses of the pronoun 
it. 6. What is the position for relatives and inter- 
rogatives? 7. To what do ivho, which and that refer 
respectively? 8. When should that be used instead of 
who or which 1 ! 9. State the use of what, and also of 
the compound relatives. 10. Give the substance of re- 
marks 19 and 20, rule VI. 12. Give rule VII. 13. 
Give the substance of remarks 1, 2, 3, and 4, rule VII. 
14. When may a finite verb have several subjects and 
still be singular? 15. State the common error, remark 
8. 16. Give rule VIII. 17. Position of appositives. 
18. What may be used as an appositive? 19. By 
what may an appositive be introduced? 20. Give rule 
IX. 21. Give the substance of remarks 1 and 2, 
rule IX. 



RULES OF MODIFICATION. 



1. Give rule X. 2. Give substance of remarks 1 
and 2 and examples. 3. Give remarks 3 and 4 and illus- 
trath with examples. 4. In like manner give re- 
marks 5, 6, and 7. 5. What is a proper adjective? 
6. Give the uses of this, these, that, and those. 1. 
Give the substance of remarks 10 and 11, rule X. 8. 
Also give remarks 12, 13, 14, also give 15, 16, and 17. 

9. What is the effect of a placed before feiv and little'! 

10. Of the omission of a? 11. With how many ob- 
jects is the comparative degree used? 12. The super- 
lative? 13. Give remarks 20 and 21. 14. Give rule 
XL 15. How should the adverb be placed? 16. 
What may adverbs modify besides verbs? 17. What 
is said of yes, no, and amen. 18. Explain the conjunc- 
tive adverb. 19. What is the effect of two negatives? 
20. Give examples. 21. Give remarks 7, 8, and 9, 
rule XL 22. Give rule XII. 23. Examples of its 
application. 



164 Eastman's Practical Grammar 



RULES OF CONNECTION AND INDEPENDENT RELATION. 

1. Give rule XIII. 2. Gire remarks 1, 2, 3, and 

4. 3. Give remarks 5, 6, and 7. 4. Give rule XIV. 

5. Give remarks 1, 2, and 3, also 4, 5, and 6. 6. 
Give rule XV. 7. Give remarks 1 and 2. 8. Give 
rule XVI. 9. Give remark 1. 

PARSING EXERCISE 1. 

In parsing the following exercises, parse every 
word and give the rule when applicable. 

1. The delta of the Mississippi was once at St. 
Louis. 2. The Gulf Stream can be traced along the 
shores of the United States by the blueness of its 
waters. 3. Genius can breathe freely only* in the 
atmosphere of freedom. 4. The suspension briige is 
stretched across the Niagara river just* below 
the falls. 

the 

w i,, .! Iron li-iv.' Bed, 

W|. rwa qnivor. 

ftllwip "•• i' 1 " r:mk« of the dead." 

8. ■ ■ .-in nil Mi-rlee ix tru<- Mrrioe whiM it Im 

Of friends, bowerer taomble, worn not one; 
■ ■ ■ 

drop from the sun." 

7. In the fifth century of the Christian era. Eng- 
land was inhabitated by various tribes of ancient 
Britons, who spoke a language altogether different 
from English.:;: They had been for four centuries 
under the rule of the Roman Empire, and consequently 
Latini was used, to some extent, in the larger cities. 



• Modifier of the phrase. 

t Conjuuctive adverb. It will expand into two phrases 

I Proper adjective used as a noun. 



Eastman's Practical Grammar 165 



• 'Think for thyself— on 3 good idea, 
But known to be thioe own , 
Is better than a thousand gleaned 

Prom fields by others bown. ' ' — Wilson . 



'Friends, Romans, countrymen, lend me your ears; 
I come to bury Osesar, not to praise him. 
The evil that men do lives after them, 

The good is oft interred with their bones ; 
So let it be with Caesar. The noble Brutus 
Hath told >ou Caesar was ambitious; if So 
It was a grievous fault, and grievously 
Bath Caesar answered it. " — Shakespeare . 

One summer's eve we wandered out, 

My mother and her thoughtless boy ; 
la pensive mood she strayed about. 

While I in heedless, childish joy, 
Would pluck the flowers that 'round me grew, 

And hold them up into the air, 
To watch the sunbeams stealing through 

Their modest petals, fresh and fair. 

At length we to a graveyard went, 

Where all seemed given to holiness; 
And there the mourner's knee was bent 

In prayer to Him our hearts to bless ; 
I looked around, on every eide 

I saw the sweetest flowers wave ; 
I grasped for one, when mother sighed 

' 'My child, you're treading on a grave! 

'Ah me, " she said, "and yet 'tis true 

In after years, my darling boy. 
You'll find each flower so fresh and new, 

Each flower of hope and love and joy. 
That you would pluck with such light heart, 

And in the air so gaily wave 
When from its kindred blown apart , 

Is blooming o'er a lonely grave." 

Alas! I've found from that sad hour, 

Her words of prophecy too true; 
I've never reached to grasp a flower 

Of joy, that near my pathway grew, 
But that an angel voice would say. 

"Look down and see; the joy you frave, 
Blooms o'er a murdered hope today, 

And you are treadiag on its grave. ' ' — The Author, 



166 Eastman's Practical Grammar 



11 . The curfew tolls the knell of patting day ; 

The lowing herd winds slowly o'er the lea; 
The plowman homeward plods his weary way. 

And leaves the world to darkness and to me.— Gray. 

12. Lives of great men all remind us, 

We c«n make our lives sublime: 
And departing, leave behind us. 

Footprints on the sands of time.— Longftllotr. 

13. O joyous day! the golden band 

Of the revolving years of time' 
Well may earth to its fairest laud. 

Grot thy return with merry chime —Greene. 

14. Ah: distinctly I remember. 

It was in the bleak December. 
And each separate dying ember 

t its ghost upon the floor. - Pot . 

15. There's a hanntel va'e ni> the Btr «i D at rim*. 

Where ghosts of nif morv w»ni r: 
As they stalk along in their man n sublime, 
Y' .11 •an bill Btop and jsmder. 

Many am robed in garments of white. 

And many in crimson, gory; 
The former appear like visions of light . 

The latter, like demons of story. — The Author. 

m storming fury rose, and clamor, such 
As heard In heaven till now was never. Arms 
Ob armor clashing, brayed horrible discord; 
And the madding wheels of brazen chariots raged 
I >:t>- mi the DOtM Of <'<>iiflirt ; overhead 
The dismal hiss of fl ry darts, in flamiug 
Volleys, flew; ami dying, Tauh-d either htMl 
With ' 



Eastman's Practical Grammar 



167 



4. Kinds of Sentences. 



With respect to use. 



SENTENCES -\ 



Declarative, 
Imperative, 
Interrogative. 
Exclamatory. 



With respect to form, . 



I Simple, 
J Complex, 
\ Compound, 
1 Partially compound. 



Sentences are divided with respect to use, into 
declarative, imperative, interrogative, and exclamatory 
sentences. 

A Declarative Sentence is a sentence used to 
declare something as a fact; as, My brother is sick. 

An Imperative Sentence is a sentence used to 
express a command; as, Be silent! 

An Interrogative Sentence is a sentence used 
to ask a question; as, Where is your boy to-night? 

An Exclamatory Sentence is one used to ex- 
press einotion; as. How the wind blows! 

Classify the following sentences with respect to use: 

1. How many men were present? 2. How it 
rains! 3. It rains. 4, Let it rain. 5. How that 
sign-boar^ creaks! 6. Come to see me. 7. The 
quality of Vnercy is noc stained. 8. Joy to the world, 
the Lord Ins come! 9. Take me back to the days of 
childhood. \10. Shall we not seek the truth, rather 
than belie ve\ a lie? 11. We should. 



168 Eastmans Practical Grammar 

With respect to form, sentences are simple, com- 
plex, compound, and partially compound. 

A Simple Sentence is a sentence which contains 
but one subject and one predicate; as, Many hallowed 
memories cluster around the dear old home. 

A Complex Sentence is a sentence which con- 
tains a principle proposition and one or more subordi- 
nate oropositions; as, The men who came to scoff at him 
remained to pray with him; Dew glitters when the 
sun shines; I would go if I were able. 

A subordinate proposition is generally introduced 
by a relative pronoun, a conjunctive adverb, or a sub- 
ordinate conjunction, expressed or understood. 

A Compound Sentence contains two or more 
principle propositions connected by the necessary con- 
junctions, expressed or understood; as, "Wealth may 
us but wisdom must be sought." 

A Partially Compound Sentence is a sentence 
which has two or more subjects, or two or more predi- 
cates; or, it may have two or more subjects and two or 
more predicates. Examples: Wives, sisters and moth- 
ers wait for the news (Compound subject). The 
moon revolves and keeps the same side toward us 
(Compound predicate). Men, women and children, 
stare, cry out, and run (Both parts compound) 

Tell tin kind Oj Wnii nrr and why: 

1. The ear is the open gateway of the soul. 2. The 
history of the Trojan war rests on the authority of 
Homer, and forms the subject of the noblest po^m of 
antiquity. 8. Slang is always vulgar as it s an af- 
fected way of talking. 4. Put not your trust in 
money, but put your money in trust. 



Eastman's Practical Grammar 169 

In complex sentences, the subordinate clause may 
be an adjective clause modifying the subject or object; 
as, Men who are educated are needed. We need men 
who are educated. 

The subordinate clause may modify the predicate; 
as, They boarded the train while it was running. 

The subordinate clause may modify other parts of 
the sentence; as, I shall vote for the man who wiil ad- 
vocate temperance. 

A compound sentence may consist of two or more 
simple sentences; as, I shall go but you must stay; or 
it may consist of a complex and a simple sentence; 
as, Those who wish may remain; but I shall go; or 
it, may consist of two or more complex sentences; 
as, Those who wish may practice fraud; but I shall be 
honest while I have my reason. A compound sentence 
containing one or more complex sentences, may be 
called a complex compound sentence. 

A compound sentence may be made up of two or 
more lesser compound sentences; as, "Men may come 
and men may go. but I go on forever". Here the ac- 
tion of men is contrasted with the action of the 
brook. 

Tell in what way the following sentences are com- 
plex or compound, of what compounded, etc. : 

1. They call me ' 'Butter cup" though I could never 
tell why. 2. "The evil that men do lives after them, 
but the good is often interred with their bones; and so 
let it be with Caesar." 3. The boys and girls went 
out to play while the daylight lingered. 4. There is 
little difference between those who work and those 
who play. 5. Come to the mother while she weeps. 



170 Eastman's Practical Grammar 

DEFINITIONS. 

A Sentence, or Proposition, is a collection of 
words expressing a thought. 

A Declarative Sentence is a sentence that 
states something as a fact. 

An Imperative Sentence is a sentence that ex- 
presses command. 

An Interrogative Sentence is a sentence that is 
a question. 

An Exclamatory Sentence is a sentence that 
expresses an exclamation. 

A Simple Sentence is a proposition consisting of 
one subject and one predicate, used alone or with 
modifiers. 

A Complex Sentence is a sentence which con- 
tains a subordinate proposition, or subordinate propo- 
sitions. 

A Compound Sentence is a sentence composed of 
two or more simple, complex, partially compound, 
or minor compound sentences. 

A Major Compound Sentence is a compound sen- 
tence containing one or more minor compound sen- 
tences. 

A partially Compound Sentence is a sentence 
whose subject or predicate, or both, are compounded. 

Make three sentence* conforming to each <>f the oboM dejlni- 
tiona, and explain them 



Eastman's Practical Grammar 171 

Elements of the Sentence. 



Subject 
Predicate 
Object 
Complemental 

ELEMENTS ( Copulative 

} Adjective 
Adverbial 
Connective 
Independent 



An Element is one of the component parts of a 
sentence. 

Elements are of three classes: 

(a) An element of the first class is a word. 

(b) An element of the second class is a phrase. 

(c) An element of the third class is a clause. 
A Word is the sign of an idea. 

A Phrase is a collection of words not expressing a 
thought but performing a single office in the sentence; 
as, A man of industry, an industrious man. 

A Clause is a part of a sentence containing a sub- 
ject and a predicate; as, A man who is\indxtstriou&, will 
succeed. An industrious man will succeed. 

Any element of a sentence except the predicate 
and connectives may be of the second or third class. 
That is, they may be phrases or clauses. 

The principal or essential elements'fof a sentence, 
are the subject and predicate; so called because a sen- 
tence cannot exist without them. One of them may be 
omitted, however, in which case it is understood. 



172 Eastman's Practical Grammar 

A sentence may consist of only two words; all 
others being" unnecessary; as, Jesus wept. 

• The subject is that of which something is said. 

SUBJECTIVE ELEMENTS. 

A subject may be of the first, second or third class. 

It is called simple when it has no modifier. This 
is also called the gramm a tical subject. It is the sub- 
ject nominative of the verb. 

The subject is complex when it has subordinate 
elements, i. e., modifiers. This is also called a modified 
subject, or logical subject. 

The subject is compound when two or more subjects 
of the same verb are connected together. Each part 
of the subject may be simple, complex or even 

compound. 

EXAMPLES. 

Simple Subject: Bees make honey; Me* make 
money. 

Complex Subject; Practical nun prosper- 

are wanted. Young mm J 
.< /■ references are 
wanted, etc. 

Compound Subject, each part simple: Mothers, 

rs mourn I'm- them. 
Compound Subje part complex: Loving 

mothers, <>■ d ajffecti mourn 

for them. 

Compound Subject, each part compound: Jew 

and Greek, male and fen i and/oe, must stand 

before the judgment bar of God; John Smith and 

from G and Mary Simkins and 

Tmn Pinkney from Piano were among the delegates. 



Eastman's Practical Grammar 173 

PREDICATE ELEMENTS. 

The Predicate is that which is affirmed of the 
subject. 

The predicate is asserted of the subject, 

(a) As a declaration; as, Life is dear to us; Tops 
spin. 

(b) As a supposition; as, If I were you; If I knew. 

(c) As a command; as, Turn from your ways; 
Leave me. 

(d) As a possibility; as, He can learn; He could 
learn. 

(e) As a probability, etc. , etc. ; as, It may rain. 

(f) As a question; as, Have you a knife? 

It may be asserted in many other ways, but these 
11 ustrations will suffice. 

The Predicate may consist of the verb alone; as 
He writes. It may consist of the verb be, or any other 
copula verb, and a complement. Henry is sick. 

The Complement may be an adjective modifying 
the subject; as, The rose is red. It may be an adjective 
modifying the object; as, We made the wall white; We 
found the fields green. 

The Complement may be a noun or pronoun re- 
ferring to the subject (predicate nominative) ; as, I am 
the man; It is he. It may be a noun referring to the 
object; as, Pharaoh made Joseph ruler over Egypt 
Here made ruler is the predicate. 

The Complement may be an adverb; as, Spring is 
here. 

The Complement may be a phrase; as, They are 
to visit us. It may be a clause; as, The question is, 
has he money? 



174 Eastman's Practical Grammar 



The copula affirms the complement of the subject. 
In the sentence, John is sick, we predicate John's state 
of him, i. e., we affirm the sickness of John. 

Infinitives and participles do not affirm a predica- 
tion, but merely assume the action, being, or state, as 
true without asserting it. 

If the predicate consists of a verb, it will be an 
element of the first class, of course; but if it consists 
of a verb and a complement, the complement may be of 
the first, second, or third class. 

The predicate may be simple; as, God is; I wal!:. 
It may be .complex; as, Charles walks in his sleep. It 
may be compound; as, Charles reads and writes. 

When the predicate is simple it has no modifiers; 
as, Great men think-. 

When complex, it may have modifiers of any class; 
first, second, or third. 

When compound, each part may be simple, complex 
or compound. 

Example of a simple predicate: Birds fly. 

Examples qf complex predicate: 

(a) Modified by a word — Birds fly swiftly. 

(b) By a phrase Birds.//// in the air. 

(c) By a clause Birds fly to their nests when 
night comes on. 

Example of a compound predicate, parts simple; 
You may eat, drink and be merry. 

Example of a compound predicate, each part com- 
plex: That woman mashes and irons for us; or, That 
woman cooks for you and washes for us. 



Eastman's Practical Grammar 175 

Example of a compound predicate, each part com- 
pound'. 

Happy children cat and drink, skip and play, and 
then lie down and sleep. 

Tell the kind of sentence, point out the subject and 
tell ivhat kind and ivhy •; the predicate, what kind and 
why: 

1. He sent his daughter home that way. 2. 
Shakespeare was fifty-two .ears old the very day of his 
death. 3. Tha emperors Napoleon and Alexander 
met and became fast friends on a raft at Tilsit. 4. 
Mecca, a city in Arabia, is sacred in the eyes of Mo- 
hammedans. 5. Ingenious Art steps forth to fashion 
and refine the race. 

6. "The Assyrian came down like a wolf on the fold, 
And his cohorts wfre gleaming in purple and gold. T1 

7. Men, women, and children stare, cry out, and 
run. 8. The upright man speaks as he thinks. 9. 
The air is quickly compressed; enough heat is evolved 
to produce combustion. 10. The camel is the ship of 
the ocean of sand, and the reindeer is the camel of the 
desert of snow. 11* John reads. 

DEFINITIONS. 

An Element of a sentence is one of its compo- 
nent parts. 

An Element of the First Class is a word. 

An Element of the Second Class is a phrase. 

An Element of the Third Class is a clause. 

A Word is the sign of an idea. 

A Phrase is a collection of words not expressing a 
thought but performing a single office. 






176 Eastman 's Practical Grammar 

A Separable Phrase is one whose parts may be 
treated separately. 

An Inseparable Phrase is one whose parts cannot 
be treated separately. 

A Clause is an element of a sentence containing a 
subject and a predicate. 

The Principal Elements are the subject and the 
predicate. 

The Subject is that of which something is 
asserted, 

The Simple i r Grammatical Subject is that 
which is the subje.'t nominative of the verb. 

The Complex or Logical Subject is a subject 
which contains modifiers of any class. 

A Compound Subject is a subject composed of two 
or more simple, complex, or even compound subjects. 

The Predicate is that which is asserted of the 
Bubj< 

The Simple or Grammatical Predicate is the 
verb, or verb and complement, without the subordinate 
elements; i. e., without the object or modifiers. 

The ComPli ical Predicate is the pred- 

v.ith all its subordinate elements. 

A Compound Predicate is a predicate composed 
oftwoor mqre simple, complex, or even compound 
predica 

A COMPLEMENT is an clement of any class, used to 
complete the predicate and refer to the subject or 

object. 

A COPULA is a verb used to connect the subject 
and complement and afhrm the complement of the 
subject. 



Eastman's Practical Grammar 177 

Subordinate Elements 

OBJECTIVE ELEMENTS. 

Objective Elements (either the objects of verbs 
and participles, or of prepositions), and adjectives, par- 
ticiples, possessives, appositives, and adverbs, or any- 
thing used as such— all these are classed as subordi- 
nate elements. 

An Objective Element may consist of a word, a 
phrase or a clause. They are therefore of the first, 
second, or third class. 

EXAMPLES. 

(a) Objective elements of the first class: You 
please your teacher; I saw the butcher killing the beef 
with an axe. 

(b) Objective elements of the second class: I like 
to read; He came from behind the barn. 

(c) Objective elements of the third class: He said, 
"I am a soldier"; Do you have any knowledge of how 
the case will be decided? 

(d) Simple objective elements: Monkeys eat 
candy; God loves us; He labors for wages. 

(e) Complex objective elements: They found good 
business in the oil fields; We visited the tomb where 
the pilgrim lay. 

(f) Compound objective elements, simple parts: 
They came for John and me. 

(g) Compound objective, parts complex: I saw 
"the cow ivith the crumpled horn," and "the dog that 
worried the cat. ' ' 



178 Eastman's Practical Grammar 



(h) Compound objective, parts compound: There 
is salvation for Jew and Greek, male and female, bond 
and free. 



COMPLEMENTAL ELEMENTS. 

Complemental Elements may consist of words, 
phrases, or cla tses; they are, therefore, of the first, 
second, or third class. 

Complemental Elements may be simple, com- 
plex, or com pou nd. 

EXAMPLES. 

(a) Complemental elements of the first class: God 
is love; I am sick, 

(b) Complemental elements of the second class: I 
am to decicU tomorrow. 

(c) Complemental elements of the third class: The 
question was. Where does tin Nile rise! 

(d) Simple complements: Mary is sick; He is 
candid. 

(e) Complex complements: He is brave in his own 
opinion; Time is eternity cut offal both ends. 

(f) Compound complement, parts simple: He is 
brave and generous; He iagood and kind* 

(g) Compound, porta complex: He is brave m 
the time of daH0*T and generous to a fault. 

(h) Compound, parts compound: Some people are 
drunken and debauched during the week, and are long- 
fated and jrrai/erful on Sunday. 

THE COPULA. 

The Copula is always an element of the first class 
being a simple verb, generally the verb be. 






Eastman's Practical Grammar 179 



It may be simple; as. My son-in-law is wise. It 
may be complex; as, He is now a good citizen. It may 
be compound; as, He was then, and is now, the best 
man in the town. 



ADJECTIVE ELEMENTS. 
Adjective Elements are of the first, second and 
third class, and are simple, complex and compound. 
EXAMPLES. 

(a) Of the first class and simple; as, That hand- 
some man. 

(b) Of the first class and complex; as, A very 
handsome mam. 

(c) Of the first class and compound; as, He is a 
kind and benevolent man. 

(d) Of the second class and simple; as, A man of 
notoriety. 

(e) Of the second class, complex; as, It is chiefly of 
danish origin. 

(f ) Of the second class, compound; as, Washington 
was a man 0/ a religious nature and 0/ a patriotic 
spirit. 

(g) Of the third class, simple; as, Boys £/m£ are 
dishonest cannot be trusted. 

(h) Of the third class, complex; as, Boys that 
will steal a penny when they are little will steal a pound 
when they are grown. 

(i) Third class, compound; as, Boys that lie and 
that steal, are worth nothing to the world. 



ADVERBIAL ELEMENTS. 
Adverbial Elements are of the first, second and 
third class, and are simple, complex and compound. 



180 Eastman's Practical Grammar 



EXAMPLES. 

(a) Of the first class, simple; as, Make haste 
slowly. 

(b) Of the first class, complex; as, The glacier 
moves very slowly. 

(c) Of the fir it cla ?3, c impound; as, They advance 
'.</ and]deliberately. 

(d) Of the 8eoon I class, simple; as, Columbus 
sailed across //■■< 

(e) Of the second class, complex; as, He swam 
/",//•/.'/ across toe Wm-. 

(f) Of the second class, compound; as, Treat your 
enemies jr///> kindness and //-///m/ spirt* of generosity. 

(g) Of the tfcirrf class, simple; as, Work uiMe ft 

(h) Of the /A ('/•'/ class, complex; as, You may 
assist me if //«/' //•,'// stay //// / „ „,,/ dinner. 

(i) Ofthef/uVtf class, compound; as, When all 
eady, and when the command was given', he fired. 

CONNECTIVE ELEMENTS. 
Connective Elements arc simple elements of the 
first class. They are conjunctions, conjunctive adverbs 
and relatiin pronouns; the preposition is also a connec- 
tive. 

INDEPENDENT ELEMENTS. 
Independent > lementa may be thejffrd class, second 
class, or t/urd class; sinfple, complex or comjxmnd. 
The principal independent elements are expletives, 
ections and /"-"//sand pronoun*, used indepen- 
dently. 

ORDER OF ANALYSIS. 

TVir stmpfe sentence: 1st. The fctnd o/* sentence 

with respect to use and/erm. 



Eastman's Practical Grammar 181 



2nd. If simple, point out the subject. 

3rd. Tell whether the subject is simple or complex, 
i. e., whether it has modifiers or not. 

4th. If complex (logical), p^infc out khibi,33 (gram- 
matical subject). 

5th. Tell how many and what subordinate elements 
it has and give the class es. 

6th. If the subordinate elements are complex, point 
out their bases, and subordinate elements, giving kind 
and class. 

7th. If the subordinate elements are compound, 
separate them into simple elements and analyze them. 

8th. Point out the entire predicate. 

9th. Tell whether the base (grammatical predicate) 
is composed of a simple verb, or of a copula and comple- 
ment. 

l(/th. If the predicate is complex, point out the 
subordinate elements, tell kind and class. 

11th. If the subordinate elements are complex, 
point out their bases, and the subordinate elements to 
these, giving h'nd and class. 

THE COMPLEX SENTENCE. 

If- the sentence is complex, and the principal and 
subordinate propositions are simple, separate them into 
simple propositions, and analyze them as above. 

The compound sentence: If the sentence is compound 
and composed of simple sentences separate it into its 
parts and analyze each part. If the parts are complex, 
separate each complex sentence into its principal and 
subordinate propositions and analyze them. 






182 Eastman's Practical Grammar 

If the sentence is a major compound, separate it into 
its minor compounds, and these again, into their simple 
parts, and analyze as before. 

MODEL FOR THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. 

Containing no subordinate elements: 

Birds fly. 

This is a simple sentence because it contains but 
one subject, and one predicate. 

The subject is birds; it is simple, having no sub- 
ordinate elements. 

The predicate is fly, simple, having no subordi- 
nates. 

Containing subordinate elements of the first class: 

Many birds fly very swiftly. 

This is a simple sentence becau 

The subject, many birds, is complex. 

The base ia birds. 

It has one subordinate element, many, which is a 
simple adjective element of the first class. The predi- 
cate is. fly r> ry swiftly, which is complex. Fly is the 
base, and it has one subordinate element, very swiftly, 
which is a complex adverbial element of the first class. 
The base of this element is swiftly. This has one subor- 
dinate element, which is a simple adverbial 
element of the first clasdt 

Containing subordinaU elements of the second 
class : 

"Cotton is raised in Egypt, in India, and in the 
United Stat 

This is a simple sentence because, etc. 



Eastman's Practical Grammar 183 

Subject, cotton; simple subjective element of the 
first class. 

Is raised in Egypt, in India, and in the United 
States is the predicate. The predicate is complex — one 
subordinate element— "in Egypt, in India, and in tl e 
United States." Compound adverbial element of the 
second class. 

First part of the compound, In Egypt; simple ad- 
verbial element of the second class. The base, Egypt, 
is a simple objective element, of the first class. In is 
the preposition. 

Second part of the compound, in India; simple ad- 
verbial element of the second class. The base, Indi%, 
is a simple objective element of the first class. In is 
the preposition. 

Third part of the compound, in the United States; 
simple adverbial element of the second class. In is .the 
preposition. The base, the United States, is a complex 
objective element of the first class. Of this, United 
States is the base, having one subordinate element, the; 
a simple adjective element of the first class. The con- 
nectives are and understood between in Egypt and in 
India, and and expressed between in India and in 
the United States. 

Model for the analysis of the complex sentence : 

■ 'Those who are honest in childhood will be honest 
when they are old." 

This is a complex sentence — one leading, and two 
subordinate sentences. 

Those who are honest in childhood, is a complex 
subject. Those, the simple subject. Who are honesfi 
in childhood is a simple adjective element of the thiri 



184 Eastman's Practical Grammar 



class, consisting of a clause. Who is the subject, 
simple. Arekonest in childhood is the complex predi- 
cate. 

A., the simple predicate, of which arc is 

the copula, and honest, the complement. In childhood 
a simple adverbial element of the second class. In is 
the preposition, and childhood is the base. Childhood, 
a simple objective element of the first class. Will be 
honest when they are old, is the complex predicate. Will 
he honest is the simple predicate, will be the copula, and 
honest, the complement; simple, first class. When they 
are old is a simple adverbial element of the third class. 
They, the simple subject; are old, the simple predicate, 
consisting of the copula, are, and the complement, old. 
Old is a simple adjecHvi clement of the first class. 
Wlicn is a connective, a conjunctive adverb, connecting 
the subordinate to the principal proposition, and modi- 
fying will be honest, and are old. 

Model for tin analysis of the compound sentena : 

"The Assyrian came down like a wolf on the fold, 
and his cohorts were gleaming in purple and gold." 

Compound sentence, composed of one complex, and 
err: simple Bentence. The Assyrian came down like a 
ivolf o)i the fold, is the complex, and his cohorts were 
steaming pi and gold, is the simple sentence. Of 

fhe complex sentence, The Assyrian came down is the 
principal proposition, and like a wolf on the fold, the 
subordinate 

Of the principal proposition, The Assyrian is the 
complex buI tyrian, the ban-, one subordinate 

element; the, a simple adjective element of the first 
class. Canu downlike a wolf on the fold, is the com- 
plex predicate in the first sentence of the compound. 



Eastman's Practical Grammar 185 

Came doivn, the simple predicate, which has one 
subordinate element; like a wolf on the fold, a simple 
adverbial element of the third class, consisting of a 
clause. The complex subject, a wolf, base ivolf, which 
has one subordinate element, a, a simple adjective 
element of the first class. The verb in the predicate of 
the clause is omitted, which, when expressed, gives 
the predicate, came down on the fold. It is complex. 
Came down* is the simple predicate and has no subor- 
dinate element. On the fold, is a simple adverbial 
element of the second class. On is the preposition, and 
the fold its object, a complex objective element of the 
first class. Fold, the base, which has one subordinate 
element. The, a simple adjective element of the first 
class. 

The second part of the compound is the simple 
sentence, And his cohorts were gleaming in purple and 
gold. Subject, his cohorts. Complex. Base, cohorts. 
Subordinate element, his, simple adjective element of 
the first class. Predicate, were gleaming in purple and 
gold. Complex. Base, were gleaming. Subordinate 
element, in purple and gold, a simple adverbial element 
of the second class. Preposition, in.' Object, purple 
and gold, compound objective element of the first class. 
First part, purple. Second part, gold, both simple. 
Connectives, and, connecting; the parts of the object, 
and and, connecting the sentences. Also like connect- 
ing the principal to the subordinate sentence. 

*Came down is a compound verb=descended 



■#* r 



186 Eastman's Practical Grammar 



MODELS FOR ANALYSIS. 

SHORTER FORM. 

'•Thi< Assyrian came down like.a wolf on the fold. 
And his cohorts were gleaming iu purple and gold 

Kind of sentence, compound. 

Consists of one complex and one simple sentence. 

Subject in the first, The Assyrian. 

Kind, complex. 

Base, Assyrian. 

Subordinate, the. 

Kind and class, adjective-first class. 

Predicate, canu down like a wo\j on fin fold. 

Kind. Complex. 

Base, canu down. 

Subordinate, like a woJj on the Sold. 

Kind and class, adverb third class. 

Subject, a wolf. 

Kind, complex. 

Base. wolf. 

Subordinate 

Kind and class, adjective first class. 

Predicate (came down) on the fold. 

Kind, complex. 

Base cairn down, understood. 

Subordinate, on thjfold, adverb second class. 

Preposition, on. 

Object, //" fold. 

Kind, complex. 

Base, fold. 

Subordinate the. 

Kind and class, adjective first class. 



Eastman's Practical Grammar 187 

Connectives, like, a conjunctive adverb. The 
other part of the compound may be analyzed as this 
part has been. 

REVIEW QUESTIONS. 3. 

1. What is a subordinate element? 2. What an 
objective element? 3. Give two examples of the ob- 
jective elements of the first class. 4. Two of the 
second class. 5. Two of the third class. 6. Two 
simple objective elements. 7. Two complex. 8. 
Two compound. 9. Give an example of a compound 
objective element, with parts complex. 10. With the 
parts compound. 11. What is the complemental ele- 
ment? 12. Of what may a complemental element 
consist? 13. Give an example of an adjective used as 
the complement of a verb. 14. Of the same as the 
modifier of the object. 15. Give an example of a noun 
or pronoun used as the complement of the verb and re- 
ferring to the subject. 16. In what case must it be? 
17. Give the rule of syntax relating to it. 18. Give 
an example of a noun complement referring to the ob- 
ject. 19. In what case must it be? 20. Give an ex- 
ample of the simple complement. 21. Of a complex 
complement. 22. Of a compound complement. 23. 
Of a compound complement, the parts simple. 24. 
The parts complex. 25. What is a copula? 26. Give 
an example of an adjective element of each class, 
simple, complex, and compound. 27. Give an exam- 
ple of an adverbial element of each class, simple, com- 
plex and compound. 28. Give an example of three 
kinds of connective elements. 29. Of three kinds of 
independent elements. 

SIMPLE SENTENCES. 

Analyze the following simple sentences: 
1. The captain is drilling his company in the 
suburbs of the town. 2. I saw an aged beggar, in my 
walk. 3. The first permanent settlement on the 



188 Eastman's Practical Grammar 

Chesapeake was made in the beginning of the reign of 
James the First. 4. The ambition of most men is to 
become rich. 5. The bells make iron music through 
the land. G. "The sentinel stars set their watch in 
the sky." 7. He sighed for a home on the rolling 
deep. 

Partially compound sentences are analyzed like 
simple sentences, after separating the compound sub- 
ject or predicate, into simple elements. 

PARTIALLY COMPOUND SENTENCES. III. 

the following partially compo 

1. The moon revolves and keeps the same side to- 
ward us. 2. The natives of Ceylon build houses of 
the trunk, and thatch roofs with the leaves of the 
nut palm. telieu exiled the mother, op- 

pressed the wife, degraded the brother, and banished 
the confessor, of the king. 

When the object is compound, separate it into its 
parts and analyze thi I pie object 

1. Hunger rings the bell and orders up coals in 
ape of br butter, beef and bacon, pies 

and puddings. 2. alk, bud, flower, and seed 

displays a figure, a proportion, a harmony, beyond the 
reach of art. in study and recite 

grammar and arithmetic. 

COMPLEX SENTENCES. IV. 
ollotiring complex s< 

1. Have we a perfect knowledge of how birds fly? 

2. We arc not sure that an open sea surrounds the 
poles. 



Eastman's. Practical Grammar 189 



NOUN CLAUSES. 

When a clause is a subject or object, consider tke 
whole sentence as the principal proposition, and tfe 
clause as the subordinate proposition. 

Analyze: 

1. That the earth rotates is not doubted, (in 
this sentence that is an expletive. The earth rotates 
is the subject in the leading or principal proposition). 
2. Galileo taught that the eartn moves. {That is a 
connective. ) 3. No man knows when the poems of 
Homer were written. 4. "When were the odes writ- 
ten"? is not so simple as it sounds. 

When a noun clause is an appositive, separate it 
from the principal clause and analyze each clause. In 
such noun clauses, the expletive, that, often occurs. 

1. It has been proved that the earth is round. 2. 
It, that the earth is round, has been proved. 

Analyze: 

J . It is believed by some that the spirits of the 
dead are constantly with us. 2. Shakespeare's met- 
aphor, "Night's candles are burned out," is one 0f 
the finest in literature. 3. The advice that St. Am- 
brose gave St. Augustine was in substance this: 
"When you are in Rome do as the Romans do." 4. ThisI 
know, that I was blind, but now I see. 

Sometimes a noun clause is the object of a 
preposition. 

Analyze: 

1. There has been some dispute about who wrote 
Shakespeare. 3. There has been much debating 
among theologians as to how one should be baptized.' 3. 
When I think of how he acted it disgusts me. 



Eastman's Practical Grammar 190 



Sometimes a noun clause is an independent element: 
1 That telegraphic messages can be sent without 
wires has been proved; the world stands in expectation 
and says, "What next." 2. How calm is the nit- it! 
All nature seems asleep. 3. That the world rotates, 
having been proved, we can understand the phenom- 
ena of the seas 

THE ADJECTIVE CLAUSE. 

The adjective clause is usually introduced by a 
relative pronoun, which serves as a connective and also 
as seme other clement; subject, object, etc. 

Ancttffiu : 

1 Those who are moderate drinkers, may become 
»ots ' 2 Slander is a crime which may be forgiven, 
but cannot be forgotten. 3. 1 met the man to whom 
you referred. I. A.n isosceles triangle is a triangle 
whose legs ate equal. 

Sometimes the connecting pronoun is omitted. 

A,"thiv: 

1 The roses 1 gathered have faded. 2. He is 
the handsomest man I ever saw. 3. The courtesy you 
show to others will be returned in due time. 

Wheniuhat, or the compound relatives occur, the 
antecedents are understood. 

Anatjpu ■ 

1. John did what was right. 2. I shall do what 
i xpecU'd of me. 8. Whosoever will may come. 

The a&Cttoe clause is often introduced by a con- 



Eastman's Practical Grammar 191 



junctive adverb. This occurs when the conjunctive 
adverb follows a noun. 

Analyze: 

1. I remember the pla^ where I first met you. 2. 
It was a time when people /ere starving. 3. I wait 
for the time when all sh al be made equal. 4. He 
raised the maid from where she knelt. (Supply the 
place before where) . 



ADVERBIAL CLAUSES. 

An adverbial clause may be introduced by a subor- 
dinate conjunction, or by a conjunctive adverb. 

Analyze: 

1. He wanted to stay because he feared it would 
rain. 2. Coral animals, when they die, form vast 
islands of their skeletons. 3. Washington retreated 
because his army was outnumbered. 4. That man is 
so tall that his head is out of the county. 5. I called 
her Mary for I did not know her real name. 



COMPOUND SENTENCES. 

Analyze the following compound sentences: 
1. He tried, but he tried in vain. 2. Sin has a 
great many tools; but a lie is a handle that fits them all. 
3. The man who is trusted should be honest; but the 
man who is dishonest should be watched. 4. Stars can 
shine while the nnon shines; but when the sun rises, 
they disappear. 5. Smith and Johnson disagree; but 
their wives are very intimate friends. 6. Little girls 
nurse dolls, aid little boys ride stick horses; but women 



192 Eastman's Practical Grammar 



nurse real children, and men ride real horses. (Several 
sentences used as examples and illustrations of preced- 
ing principles were taken from Reed and Kellogg's 
grammar.) 

MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISE III. 

1. "Tl lathe knell of parting day; 

The winds slowly o'er tin- lea; 

The plowman boinewanl plod a his weary way. 
And leaves tho world bo darkness and to me" 

(When the conjunction is omitted, supply it.) 

2. ' 'There is a fierce gray bird with a bendii p beak, 
With an angry eye and a tartllng 
That domm - ber br 
' in :, i.i enow. ' ' 

(The subj <:' the whole stanza except 

flu H 

Hen and not a copula. Then 

is ind< 

went down; 

I. ••] 

dew; 

■ 

authentic history, porn 

.bout the cities 
<>f the ■ uthern Italy, Sicily, the 

6. .. Shakesp 
John Harvard, a i ding at the dim 

ited by 

7. The trojan war \'. a ip posed to bi 

myth, but ■ I >•■. S :hli 

of the ..■ that it had a historic 1 



Eastman's Practical Grammar 193 

8. Paris, the son of Priam, King of Troy, carried 
off Heilen, the wife of Menelaus, King of Lacedaemon. 

9. ' 'I stooped upon a pebbly strand 

To cull the toys that 'round me lay ; 
And, as I took them in my hand, 
I threw them one by one away. 

Ah! thus, I said. In every staee, 

By 1 oys our fancy i-i beguiled; 
We gather shells from youth to age, 

And then we leave them 1 ke a child. ' ' 

10 . " Wob worth tbe chase ! woe worth the day 

That cost ihy life, my gallant gray I" 

11. "When mnsi^ arose with its voluptuous swell. 

Soft eyes looked love to e\es which s.ake again, 
And all went merry as a marriage bell. ' ' 



Analysis by Diagrams. 

Subject, 

Predicate, 

Object, 

Complement. 
ELEMENTS OF THE SENTENCE { opula. 

kdj ctive, 
Adverb. 
Connective. 
Independent. 

To analyze a sentence by the use of a diagram, is to 
make a picture of the analysis, by ceriain lines that 
represent the elements by their forms and their posi- 
tions. 

All nouns, pronouns, and verbs are written on 
horizontal lines. Those forming the subject and predi- 
cate, are double, to indicate the importance of the 
elements. 

Ail modifiers have dependent vertical lines. A 
number of modifiers of the first class may be written by 
one vertical line. 



194 Eastman's Practical Grammar 

All connectives have dotted lines. Dotted dependent 
lines indicate both connection and modification. 

The short vertical line separates the subject from 
the predicate; thus, 

Subject Pt'cilicate. 



A short vertical line likewise separates the verb 
from its object, but does not extend below the horizon- 
tal line; thus, 



1 v-l. I object 



The complement has a line like that of the object, 
except that its under part u broken; pointing- towards 
the word to which the complement refers, either sub- 
ject or object, as the case may be; thus, 



A line, pari of which is solid and part dotted, is 
adverb, which has the two 
offices, connective and modifi 

The elements shewn in the out lines are only simple 
element of i h<' first i prepositional phrase is 

placed on ^ base line connected with a dotted vertical 



Eastman's Practical Grammar 195 



line. The preposition is placed by the dotted line, and 
the base of the phrase, on the horizontal line; thus, 



A collection of words forming, together, a single 
element, is diagrammed according to relations sustained 
to each other, and the whole placed on a support that 
rests on the line denoting the single element it repre- 
sents; thus, in the sentence, Have birds any knowledge 
of why they sing? the sentence would be represented 
in diagram as follows: 

Birds have 1 knowledge 



t hey 



a 



The object of the preposition is a clause, and stands 
as a single object, on the base line of the phrase. 

Participles, on account of their verb nature, should 
be placed on horizontal lines, but on account of their 
adjective nature they should be placed by vertical lines; 
both nature s can be shown by using a broken line, a 
part of which is vertical, and a part horizontal; thus, 

I 



The participial noun, having the nature of a noun 
and of a verb, both of which require horizontal lines, 



196 



Eastman's Practical Grammar 



m.iy ba placed on a line like this, 



The infinitive phrase is represented in diagram just 
as a prepositional phrase, except chat both lines are 

solid. 

A relative pronoun is placed on a dotted horizontal 
line, one of the double lines if it is a subject, and its 
connective nature is still further shown by a dotted 
line connecting it with its antecedent. 

Compound subjects, predicates, or objects, are 
represented in diagrams by forked lines; thus. 

Sui.' verb 



Subja I 






v.-i i. I 



,1,J. 



The co-ordinate conjunction l> 'tween two sentences 
ia represented thus, 



Between the subordinate and principal clause a 
dotted vertical line ia used. 

The correlative conjunction is placed on a continu- 
ation of the conjunctive line. Independent elements 
are diagrammed separately from the sentence to show 
that they have no grammatical connection with the 
sentence. 



Eastman's Practical Grammar 197 



EXAMPLES. 

The simple sentence with simple subject and predicate : 
Birds fly. 

Birds fly. 



The simple transitive sentence: Jesus loved him. 

Jesus I loved h im 

_ __. 

Simple sentence, parts complex: That good boy is 



sick. 



boy 



That 
good 



Simple sentence, compound object: Farmers raise 
cotton and corn. 



Far m ers ! raisa 



The partially compound sentence: John and James 
study well; or John studies hard and learns well. 



and. 
Jam ps 



study 



and 
leurns 



198 Eastman's Practical Grammar 



The partially compound sentence, compound in both 
subject and predicate: Mary and Susan sing and dance. 



Mary 








sing 




and 




1 


and 


>-'r)^f)!) 


1 


dance 



Subject, predicate and object compound: Mary and 
Susan cook and eat pies and puddings. 



Mary 




cook 




jiics 


and 


J 


au 1 
.at 


1 


: and 


^n-an 




: pudding 



run : Those who run may read; 
Dew glitters when the sun shines. 



iuht r.-H<l 



Kl it t<>rs 



I u 



If I 

Tin compound sentence: The man dies but his 
memory lives. 



Eastman's Practical Grammar 



199 



Sentences containing participles and infinitives as 
modifiers: Old men, bending under the weight of 
many years, are often eager to leave this world. 



men 


1 are 


( eager 






II 


1 

benainer 


It j. 


lea^e 


f world 




: b 
■ a 
: $ weight 






n 



EXERCISE I. 
Analyze and diagram: 

1. The gentleman from Texas is now speaking. 

2. At day light the army began to move. 

3. England was conquered by the Normans in the 
eleventh century. 

4. The old ship of state rides securely over the 
turbulent waters. 

5. His mental, moral, and physical powers were 
injured. 

powers were injured 



mental 




moral 
and 



physical 

Explanation: The ( ) indicate a word understood. Tne dotted lines show 
the words connected. All first class modifiers may, or may not be placed by 
the same vertical lint . 



200 



Eastman's Practical Grammar 



C\ Both friend and foe suffered from the invasion. 

Roth 



<ufi>ro<1 



Explanation: ' 'Both 1 ' is placed abjvo the sentence as au introductory 
w. rl. :' r.iauection. 



7. Mush and milk is good diet. 



Maafa mil i roil* 



inittfin: "Mash and milk' ' taken as one subject as it uoo9 

D that llllisl) : : 'Hot. 

8. The man could both speak and write the lan- 
guage. 

9. The prisoner swam nearly across the river be- 

; overtaken by the boatman. 



rtoken 



>:nnriuii. "Nearly "modlfl . acro=a thj rivor Before 

connect* tbfl olsnaoa and modifies swam anil overtaken. 



Eastman's Practical Grammar . 201 

10. ^hnv Ijye jiist beyond the bridge. 

11. She died while the summer was in its glory. 

12. The power of the United States was not known 
until she engaged in war with Spain. 

13. The sheriff captured and imprisoned the bur- 
glar. 



captured 

1" 



and 
imprisoned 



burglar 



14. The old man raised and educated the youth. 

15. He moves a god amongst his fellows. {God 
is nominative predicate, complement after moved.) 

16. He went to Europe as my interpreter. 



w3nt j 



Europe 



Explanation: It is plain that "interpreter 1 ' is nominative predicate 
referring to the same person as ' 'he *' "As," then, is an expletive conjunction 
used as an introductory word. 

17. Silk feels smooth and looks pretty. 

18. They made the wall white with lime. 



They j made | white j wall. 



Explanation: "Made white"=" whitened. " "White" completes the 
predicate and modifies the object Tin brok -n liae3 between "mide" and 
"white" points toward ''wall" to show what "white" modifier. 



202 Eastman's Practical Grammar 

19. They called the old man a tramp. (Tramp 
is an objective complement as white is in example 
above. ) 

20. We call life a battle but seldom want it 
ended. 

21. President Hays chose W. T. Everts Secretary 
of State. 

22. The people created the worthless plebean, 
king. 

23. Scipio was called Africanus. (Africanus is 
not an objective.) 

24. They called Scipio, Africanus. (Africanus is 
objective.) 

25. I found my fields green. 

26. Mr. Wilson, the merchant, keeps school 
books. 



Mr Wis., n imiTiiiHDi i 



I? 



Eqptan alion : An eppoaitiT^ i» placed after the Donn it modifies, and in 

I-an-ntl 



27. Teddy, the rough rider, became president. 

28. Bryan, the great Democratic leader, was de- 
feated. 

29. The puma, or American lion, is found in South 
America. (Or, is an expletive conjunctive introducing 
the appositive. 

30. Washington, the general, became Washington, 
the president. 



Eastman's Practical Grammar 



203 



31. I resolved to be absolutely truthful, a pledge 
that is hard to keep. 



I .. 



be \ truthful (pledge) 



,5* that 



I" 

1 - ~l 



32. Write me a letter from home. 



Explanation: The subject is nacUratJol. Th9 indirect object, "me" 
seems to be the object of a preposition understood, but it is not ; hence, no ( ) 
must be used, and the line is drawn solid. 

33. Sing me a pretty song, and I will tell you a 
story of the Revolutionary war. 

34. Will you give us some information on the sub- 
ject? 

35. You all do know that on the Lupercal I thrice 
presented him a kingly crown. 

36. Anthony offered Caesar the crown three 
times. 

Anthony offered I crown 



Explanaticn: The objective adverbial is diagrammed like an indirect 



object. 



204 Eastman's Practical Grammar 



37. The boy, leaving his companion, ran. 

boy ran 



1 , 

leaving companion 



Explanation: The participle "leaving" partakes of the nature Of bothTerb 
and adjective; and hence, a broken line; one part horizontal and one part ver- 
tical. 

38. The men that journeyed with him stood 
speechless, hearing a voice but seeing no man. ^ 

39. The old gentleman looking up, recognized his 
long lost son. 

40. 1 saw Esau 

rliing look. (The 
>ipialadjec1 diagrammed as any 

, run ninety years. 
stopped. {Gra an adjective element and 

having run is a participle.) 
43. 



| [_| n-«_- Ki-k J 

— : 

11. V 



i n 

is a good 
opinion of you. 



Eastman's Practical Grammar 205 



46. Chewing wax in Lime of school is a Bad ! habit. 

47. We learn to do by doing. 

48. Portions of the brain may be removed without 
producing death. 

49. His writing was illegible/ {Writing ,heve has 
no participial nature, but is merely a common noun,:) 

50. Their efforts to quiet the mob were.vain. .,,;. 

efforts were vain 



quiet | 



Explanation: The infinitive is here used as an adjective, modifying 
efforts. 

51. Ha is the lawyer tj take that case. 

52. The first attempt to lay the Atlantic Cable, 
failed. 

53. An effort to appear wise sometimes renders 
one ridiculous. 

54. Joy is a flower to be blighted. 

55. He goes to school to learn. (To learn, is used' 
as an adverb.) 

56. She lingered to see the last rays of the setting 
sun. 

57. An angel left her home in heaven, to cross 
the wanderer's sunless path, 

58. To be virtuous is to be happy. 



r bo 



J virtuous be 

T 
n i .. ~i n 



206 Eastman's Practical Grammar 



59. To know him is to love him. 

60. A nobel revenge is to forgive. 

61. Many people like to visit the theater. (To vint 
is the object.) 

62. The doctor said, my patient is about to leave 
this world. 

I" leav* 1 world 



-i i* 



n 



i-~i 



h 



i ~* i n 



63. My son-in-law and daughter are to visit me 
Christmas. 
64 

65. For a man to boast is f >lly. 



1 



I I 



ad. "Mia" 1 1 the a I >tloa that 

Um vprti.-ii lias of tfas tofloll robjac' 

/r<>m its pre i|e 



Eastman's Practical Grammar 



207 



66. For a man to make a promise and break it 
seems dishonest. 



o 




m ike 


promise 


:aml 


1- 


break 1 


it 



n 



j seems | dishoo^t 



67. It is wrong to deceive intentionally. 

1-9 



It (1 1)1 is 



Explanation: The infinitive is in apposition with " it. ' ' 

68. It is pleasant to do an act of kindness. 

69. To be, or not, to be, that is the question. 

70. That makes all further efforts useless. (Makes 
useless is the completed predicate.) 

71. I consider all further effort to ba useless. 

o I 

I be I useless 



I j consider 1 1 Lf efforts 

I I all 

I further 



208 Eastman's Practical Grammar 

72. James ordered the horse to be saddled. 

73. She wanted the hat to be trimmed in blue. 

74. To confess the truth, I believe them both 
guilty. (The phrase is independent and should stand 
detached.) 

75. To be candid, I never saw the man. 

76. It is right to pray to God for forgiveness. 

77. Having such a small army, Washington decided 
to retreat. 

78. The night being dark the robbers escaped. 

79. I took him to be a tramp. 

80. The boy, oh! where was he? (Boy is inde- 
pendent.) 

81. "0. Heaven!" he cried, "my bleeding country 
save." 

82. The sun rose and the stars shut their eyes. 



| -il.lt ' T' « 



|Sl 



1 



83. Bees make honey but men make money. 

M I Up I'Hrk thai heM th- jirioc.' w.'ijt down. 

The ->»'•■ ptng \»-\ ■■■- r..n*.i on. 



Eastman's Practical Grammar 



209 



'Lives of great meu all remind ua 

We can make our ives subline, 
And, departing, leive behind ns, 

Poo prints on th« eands of time . " ' 



Live* I remind I u« 



all 
treat 





1 ran make 1 sublime J lives 


and 


1 • li 


leave footprints 



L 



d»psrtng :p t, s 



Explanation: The participle "departing" modifies the subject as it re- 
bates to the sea nd part of th*- cmpomd predicate, but not as it relates totbs 
first part. We would not say. We. departing. can make our lives sublime; bat-. 
We, departing, ca" leave footprints, etc T his makes it nee ssary to p!a--ethe 
lines stparating tbe subject and predicate, ba< k on the predicate line far enough 
to receive tha participle on oue pron^, that it m iy modify th* subject as it re- 
lates to this part of the predicate. 

86. Smith gave a farmer forty cents a bushel for 
his corn, and sixty cents a bushel for his wheat. 



I' I? 



87. We will give him credit for his good deeds and 
censure for his evil ones. 



210 Eastman's Practical Grammar 



88. The ancient Hebrews required an eye for an 
eye, and a tooth for a tooth. 

89. Render unto Caesar the things which are 
Caesar's, and unto God,- the things which are God's. 

00. the glimmering laud capeon th < sight. 

And all the air a a .lemnetilln ■*■ I 

91. Theenemj must be shelled when ever they 
show the; i ft give indications of their presence, 

number of tugs undergoing re- 
pairs at the yard. 

93. I wish, conscrip • not to appear neg- 
ligent am >-s to the stale; but I do now ac- 

e myself of remi rod culpable inactivity. 

94. The goddess by herself revolving such thoughts 
in herinflami "> Aeolia, the native 
l ;i!l , sgnant with the boisterous 

wim 

1 1 thetr life. 

■ 

96. At that time Jesus went on the sabbath day 
through the corn; and his dhcipleg were anhungred, 
and began to pluck the ears of corn and to eat, 
;, 7 analon** swarthy eheektlkeflre, 

| It HO." 

H 

i . tar 

I Will " 

99. The mil! can never grind with the waters that 
are past. 

100. Jov forever! my task is done. 



Eastman's Practical Grammar 211 



6. Exercises on Preceding 
Principles. 

NOUNS. 

GENDER. 

Give the feminine, if any, of the following words: 
Actor, author, tiger, panther, peacock, gobbler, 

bear, carpenter, tailor, beau, drake, dude, milter, hart. 
Give the masculine, if any, of the following words: 
Spinster, bell, mantuamaker, seamstress, milliner, 

maid, doe, czarina, Mrs. Jones, alumna. 

Give both masculine and feminine of the following: 
Sheep, whale, cat, friend, relative, baby, child, 

bear, mule, fish, eagle, pup. 
Distinguish between: 

1. A friend is known by his conduct toward us, 
and, A friend of mine lost his arm. 

2. Every student must account for his own time, 
and, Every student wore his coat and vest. 

3. The (executor or executrix) will look after the 
matter. 

4. She is the author of her own shame, and, She 
is an authoress. 

NUMBER. 

Insert the proper word: 

1. The committee (was or were) pleased with 
{this or these) news. 



212 Eastman's Practical Grammar 

2. "The murderous gallows, black and grim, (is 
or are) cheated of (its or their) dead." 

3. Tidings (was or wore) Drought of their arrival. 

4. The com is or were/ poured out. 

5. Toe good women raised money by (this, these) 
means. 

6. The widow's m^ms (was, were) ample. 

7. Measles (was, w jre) sw \ \ >ing the country. 

8. Athletics (is, are) over 1 >.ie here; Mithemat- 
ics (is, are) good to develop reason. 

DOUBLE PLURALS. 

Distinguish bet ween : 

1. They are (brothers, brethren), 

2. They crossed the river with twenty (cannon, 
cannons). 

3. I found two (dio.s. dice). 

4. Five hundred I lannl (horse, 
horses). 

5. Fifty (head, heads) of cattle lay there. 

6. Refe* to the (indexes or indi !es). 

7. How many (shot, shots) were there. 

8. Take two (spoons full, spoon fulls). 

9. He counted six (pennies, pence). 

PERSON. 

the noun has no infl action for person, there can 
be no mistake in regard to it. 

CASE. 

The nominative and objective cases of nouns are 
alike in form. 

Possessive Case: 

Sometimes it is better to use the possessive case, 



Eastman's Practical Grammar 213 

and sometimes the preposition of with the objective. 

Form the possessive of: 

Moses, Jesus, Barnes, box, Miss Houston, The 
Secretary of State, son-in-law, conscience (sake), James, 
William the Conqueror, Alexander the Great, Paul the 
apostle. 

Distinguish between: 

1. The love of God, and, God's love. 

2. The reception of the governor, and, The gov- 
ernor's reception. 

3. A father's care, and, The care of a father. 

4. Elia and Clara's books, and, Ella's and Clara's 
books. 

5. The son-in-law's, and, The sons-in-law. 

PRONOUNS. 

There are only seven words in our language that 
have different forms for the nominative and objective 
cases; these are personal and relative pronouns. They 
are: 

Nom. Obj. 

I, me, 

we, us, 

thou, thee, 

he, him, 

she, her, 

they, them, 

who, whom. 

It should be remembered that the compound per- 
sonal pronoun should be used only emphatically, or 
reflexively. It is incorrect to say Mary and myself will 
go. Say Mary and I will go. 



214 Eastman's Practical Grammar 



Insert proper pronouns, giving reason: 

7, me, mytelf. 

1. John and • • • • will do that work. 

2. I hurt • • • with that old hoe. 

3. They have sent for you and . 

4. They wanted James and to visit them. 

5. Between you and 1 cannot trust him. 

6. Let Charles and ■ • -go to the theater. 

7. Who is there?- ■ • -. How could you treat- • • 
thus?- who had so often befriended you. 

8. The bishop spoke encouraging words to the 
girls, - -among the rest. 

9. It was that told it. 

10. I was beside . 

11. What would you do if you were- • • • ? 

12. Was it that you saw? 

1. The Johnsons and- • • -live I - ;ir the church. 

2. They called on our friends and. 
They have a larger income than- 

4. The Yankees are more ingenious than — . 

5. There were none present except- • • . You can 
change that as well as- • • . 

6. This is for you and to do. 

7. We must do that. 

II r, him, /■• 

1. Alexander could not conquer them. 

2. I am not so old as • . 

3. There is something wrong between you and- • • ■ 

4. I know it was- for you told me. 

5. He will hurt- • with the stick. 

6. What were you and talking about? 



Eastman's Practical Grammar 215 



7. I can stay as long as — . 

8. who always loved her, she now believes 

false. 

9. I want it to be — . 

10. Whom can I trust if not — ? 

She, her, herself. 

1 • ■ • • And her husband will visit us Christmas. 

2. I would try to control my temper if I were 

3. They sent for my sister and — to sit ud with 
the sick. 

4. She would better do that — . 

5. She will please — before she tries to please 
others. 

6. If any are to go it is not to be • • • . 

They, them, themselves, 

1. are learning to play well. 

2. We shall soon be as happy as . 

3. will render unpopular. 

4. There is no friendship between Smith and 

Who, whom, whoever, whomever. 

1. — did she marry? 

2. — do men say that I am? 

3. do you take him to be? 

4. is she to be in the play? 

5. I do not know to employ. 

6. I do not know will do that work. 

7. Ask you please. 

8. will may come. 

9. ] do not know you mean. ._ 

10. ... -do you wish to respond? 

11. He is the man everybody dislikes. 



216 Eastman's Practical Grammar 



Which, what, that. 

1 man among you would not do the same? 

2. • - - man do \ >u mean, the tall one or the short 

OEfC? 

3. The things are mine I shall keep. 

4. is mine I shall keep. 

5. Solomon was the wisest man- • • -ever lived. 

6. That is the very horse 1 saw on the lawn. 

7. The man and lion are mentioned in the Latin 

story, walked the streets of Rome together. 

8. All glitters is not gold. 

77" 1 p038e '"' ' )!.*«d ho for 4 a 

participial noun, while the now • objective forms 

are used as the subject of pure participles. 
Insert th* , giving th • reason : 

1. rapid marching and retreating puzzled 
them. 

2. I found shaving with a dull razor. 

3. being the judge he had all the advantage. 

4. I found — dying of thir 

5. We saw the Mexicans in their homes, and 
watched- • baking their cakes. 

Distinguish betufa 

1. Do you remember Mary's singing? Do you 
•rememoer Mary singing? 

2. I dislike Ins playing; I dislike him playing. 

3. His reading was all that could be wished; He 
reading was all that could be wished. 

4. I heard of his coming home; I heard of him 
coming home. 

3. We heard his coughing; We heard him coughing. 



Eastman's Practical Grammar 217 

6. The man, asking to be admitted, started a 
quarrel; The man's asking to be admitted started a 
quarrel. 

ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS." 

Insert the proper adjective pronouns: 

1. We may choose between religion and irreligion; 
elevates us, degrades us. 

2. I saw three persons that heard the sermon 
and of them were pleased with it. 

3. I know two persons that went to school to him, 
and of them could teach him. 

4. We have asked both the boys and of them 

seemed to know. 

5. of the three will answer. 

6. The one that told me said (he or they) did not 
see it. 

7. animal wore the mark and brand. 

8. Here is room for you all; I have two places 
reserved for you all. (What is wrong and why?). 

9. Each of the twelve apostles (was, were) full of 
zeal. 

ADJECTIVES. 

Select the proper word: 

1. Who is the (best, better) calculator, you or I? 

2. Which of the two horses is the (faster, fastest) ? 

3. He is the (better, best) man of all. 

4. This meat is too (salt, salty. ) 

5. This water seems to have a (sweet, sweetish) 
taste. 

6. That water has a (blue, bluish) tint. 



218 Eastman's Practical Grammar 

Tell whether to use or omit " other." Why? 

1. God is wiser than any other man. 

2. The serpent was more subtile than anv beast of 
the field. 

3. Samson was the strongest of all men. 

4. She sings more sweetly than any one I ever 
heard. 

Explain the Errors: 

1. "This was the most unkindesi cut of all." 

2. I have the supremest contempt for such men. 

3. He is miehty weak. 

4. I think it is awful cute. 

5. All these kind of things is wrong. 

6. Either of the three roads goes to my house. 

7. Take the three first pages for a lesson. 

Insert t)>r t ,y <>n: 

", in. 

1. • • hour passed. 

2. -man came and asked for dime. 

3. " horse! horse! My kingdom for a 

horse!" 

4. I have- • • uncle living ti. 

5. historical Btat ment about honored men. 



1. prince is... son of kingor queen. 

2. dog is sagacious animal. 

3. Livingston says — lion is. . . arrant coward. 

4. — eagle is — bird of prey. 

5. The Boldiera Buffered from — want of food. 

6. This is species of • • • rose. 



Eastman's Practical Grammar 219 

7. To — student of Latin language, knowl- 
edge of difference of meaning in English, between 

indicative mode and subjunctive is important. 

Tell where the article should be used and tvhere 
omitted: 

1. Is he entitled to the name of Christian? 

2. I am not acquainted with that kind of 

flower. 

3. The queen conferred on Tennyson the title of 
— • -baron. 

4. fourth and •••• fifth chapter. 

5. fourth and fifth chapters. 

6. Spaniards scoured South America in 

search of gold. 

7. I do not not know which teacher I like best. 

Distinguish between: 

1. A son of the king, and, The son of a king. 

2. I saw the fire from my window, and, I saw a 
fire- from my window. 

3. He told of an accident, and, He told of the 
accident. 

4. A lion may be seen in the forest, and, The lion 
may be seen in the forest. 

5. A black and a white cow, and, A black and 
white cow. 

6. A good husband and a father died, and, A good 
husband and father died. 

7. The world lost an orator at once, and a states- 
man, and, The world lost an orator and statesman. 

8. A cotton and a woolen coat, and, A cotton and 
woolen coat. 



220 Eastman's Practical Grammar 

ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS. 
Insert the proper ivord and give your reasons: 

Good and Well. 

Good is an adjective, well an adverb. 

1. He behaves very . 

2. The class reads 

3. My health is very . 

4. I can not do that as- • • as he. 

5. Her painting is very . 

6. That is all very . 

Likely, Probably, 

Likely is an adjective, probably an adverb. 

1. We will have to review this work. 

2. Ik' is to change his mind. 

::. Wo will visit the world's fair. 

4. An accident is to happen to us at any time. 

Dangers are to threaten us at any moment. 

6. you have forgotten. 

7. You are to forget 

(tit, Feuer, Smaller. 

Less refers to quantity, fewer to number and 
smaller to Bize, 

1. He has gold than brass. 

2. The teacher has Btudents than he had last 

year. 

3. The pupils of the primary department are 

than those of the grammar school department. 

!. : the country have things to talk 

those of the city, and hence have 

chanc to gossip. 

There were wagons in the square than 

usual. 



Eastman's Practical Grammar 222, 



Most, Almost. 

Most never means nearly, almost does. 

1. He is crazy. 

2. He is calmer than men. 

3. The farmer was beside himself with joy, 

4. I am persuaded to be a Christian. 

5. You will find him at home any day. 

6. men love money as well as they do 

their lives. 



Some, Somewhat Something. 

Some is an adjective, somewhat, an adverb. 

1. My wife is better than she was yesterday, 

2. has happened; I feel uneasy. 

3. He was encouraged by news he 

heard. 

4. You resemble your aunt , about the 

mouth. 

Select the proper word and give reason: 

1. They arrived (safe, safely). 

2. The rose smells (sweet, sweetly). 

3. The moon shines (bright, brightly). 

4. I am (tolerable, tolerably) well. 

5. She is a (remarkable, remarkably ) good player. 

6. He talks very (different, differently). 

7. It tastes (bad, badly). 

8. He will talk (plainer, more plainly) to me than 
to you. 

9. We found the way (easy, easiiy). 
10. He appeared (prompt, promptly). 



222 Eastman's Practical Grammar 



VERBS. 
Select give your reasons, 

Did, Done. 

1. John that, for he said others had so t J ). 

1. I have — all that you . 

3. • ■ • ■ he take the bread up before it was ? 

1. I have ■ • him before. 

2. We him at church, and he — us. 

3. Wheal discovered ho had* •••me, I- •••there 
was no 



1. We him I man. 

2. : the hor the 

pi r. 

3. John medicine for he had cold. 

nd why: 

1. I kno .en him my- 
self. 

2. I seed him when he taken it. 

3. They hung a man for murder. 
■1. Jane drinked ah the water up. 

5. I >r by the collar. 

6. Charles div to the bottom of the lake. 

s. j ian laid in bed a month. 

9, Mr r ■ ad up and looked at me. 

10. It was did for your < r <..,d. 

11. II" 



Eastman's Practical Grammar 223 



Tell which is the indicative and which is the sub- 
junctive and why: 

1. If I was at the show I behaved well. 

2. If I were at the show I would see a baboon. 

3. If it rains I do liDt hea ■ it. 

4. If it rain I shall not go. 

5. If I had known that, I would have acted other- 
wise. 

Tell the difference betv n: 

1. You can read; You may read. 

2. You may read; You shall read. 

3. I will go; I shall go. 

4. We would learn; We should learn. 

5. It may happen; It might happen. 

6. I expected to meet you; I expected to have 
met you. 

Change the present tense to the past tense: 

1. I see you. 

2. You are walking in the garden. 

3. They are dragging the log in the streets. 

4. Susan does all the house work. 

5. He lies on the sofa while I sit and sew. 

6. I bid you go; you usually do as I bid. 

7. The young people take their baskets and hie to 
the woods. 

8. The pigeon flies swiftly. 

9. They flee to the mountains. 

10. The river overflows once a year. 

11. The cock crows in the morning. 

12. He swims and dives well, and climbs like a 
cat. 

13. The sun sets at six o'clock. 



224 Eastman's Practical Grammar 

Change the verbs from the present to the present 
perfect tense, and transitive verbs from, the active to tfi£ 
passive voice: 

1. I sleep on feathers, 

2. The patient awakes. 

3. I wonder if I disturbed him? 

4. The bird fl^w across the meadow. 

5. The army is marching through Georgia. 

6. The boy chops wood and his mother praises 
him for it. 

7. He leaves his home and flees to the mountains. 

8. This facl r guilty. 

9. Boil burst when the pressure is 
too great. 

ison: 

wm, Shall. 

1. 1- • • -help me. 

t. You ■ • • -have a q larrel with him, 

3. S I she- . ..8t to church. 

4. 

5. [•••be obliged; you- — 'do as [say. 

6. ' •<! trial? 

1. I . 

2. -I leave the |>om? You 

3. -1 to >harp m my pencil? 

4. ... change his skin? 

i to dine wit h us? 

May, Might 

1. I \w\Ui\ spit in his face but he (leg me. 

2. I would promise to go but it • rain. 

:'.. lie become offended if I should do that. 



Eastman's Practical Grammar 225 

Would, Should. 

1. If I promise, you- • • -abuse the privilege. 

2. He should do more work; he could if he . 

3. You be better off if he leave town. 

Correct the number and person of the verb, giving 

reasons: 

1. If I was you I would rest. 

2. Horses are a common noun. 

3. The tone of men's characters were very low. 

4. The sun with all its attendant planets are but 
a speck in this great universe. 

5. John as well as James and the other boys, learn 
well. 

6. The concord of sweet sounds please the ear. 
Tell the difference in meaning between: 

1. I have got a canary bird, and, I have a canary 
bird. 

2. The house stood twenty years, and, The house 
has stood twenty years. 

3. I was in the city three days, and, I have been 
in the city three days. 

4. The norther has come, and, The norther came. 

5. I expect it, I suspect it, and, I think it. 

6. I accept him, and, I except him. 

Use the correct form and give your reasons: 

1. What did you tell me a geyser (was, is) ? 

2. Who (was, is) that man that wore his hat in 
church? 

3. It was proved in olden times that the world 
(was, is) round. 

4. Harvey discovered that blood (circulated, cir- 
culates). . 



226 Eastman's Practical Grammar 

5. I do not think he said that money (was, is) a 
curse. 

6. I hope (to form, to have formed) his acquain- 
tance before leaving. 

Correct the following, giving reasons: 

1. I expect he said it. 

2. I gu ss you were pleased? 

3. I su >pect he is a good friend. 

4. He allowed he would go any how. 

PREPOSITIONS. 
Insert the pr position: 

Amon 

1. A father divided his estate- • ■ his four sons. 

2. There is now enmity • • • .the two. 

3. The. kind of rivalry — Europe and 
America. 

4. One apple was to be divided three boys. 

5. The "forty thieves" had a custom them. 

At, In 

1. He spent his summer vacation- •• -the univer- 
sity. 

'1. His home is. . . . Now York. 
3. A man- • • -the village of Enloe wrote to a firm 
• • Chicago. 

At, To. 

1. He is down the ferry. 

2, He went the ferry. 

::. My father stays • home. 

In, Into 

1. They went down the river, and while they 

stood the water, there came a voice from Heaven. 



Eastman's Practical Grammar 227 



2. The boy threw a cat • • • • the cistern. 

3. Shooting paper wads- • • the school room is bad 
order. 

4. He found his way the garden. 

5. A man •• ■ • West Texas can get- -a prairie-dog 
town at any time. 

Correct the errors, giving reasons: 

1. The cat jumped onto the table. 

2. Hr is read y over x. (Should be y divided by x. ) 

3. Where is my hat at? 

4. Where did he go to? 

5. He died with starvation, she from pneumonia. 

6. We live in a little town at the "Sunny South." 

7. No one could help from loving her. 

9. Has any one past as you have seen of? 

9. When I was a girl of about twelve years old. 

10. He took his coat off of his back. 

11. On one day he does one thing and on another 
something else. 

CONJUNCTIONS. 

Insert the proper conjunction: 

1. Poverty fosters discontent wealth is the 

cause of much anxiety. 

2. They were foot-sore and weary, — they never 
faltered. 

3. While saloons were in the town many were 
drunk much crime was committed. 

. 4. I have called — I have found her absent. 

5. Either Jane — Susan will do that for you. 

6. — the river is deep. I will ford it. 



228 Eastman* s Practical Grammar 

7. ye repent ye shall all perish. 

8. I called him stranger • • • • I did not know his 

name. 

Correct the errors: 

1. She is handsomer but not so intelligenc as her 
sister. 

2. Ha is as h ■ wy or heavi »r fh^n I am. 

3. I never haard any one play so well or sing more 
sweetly than she. 

4. He reads as well and speaks batter than I. 

5. He acted so badly till no one liked him. 

INTERJECTIONS. 

There is but little danger of error in the use of 
interjections. 

Analyze, diagram and parse the following: 

1. You strike your child and I'll strike mine. 

2. I did not dream of his being my enemy. 

3. This is a grand and glorious country. 

4. The boy, 0! where was he? 

5. Our Father, who art in Heaven, hallowed be Thy 
name. 

6. 0, Heaven! my bleeding country save! 

7. All things being now ready, the army resumed 
its march. 

8. The clock struck the hour for retiring. 
"J. Playing tennis is excellent exercise. 

11/. Write me a letter from home. 

11. We made Mr. Brown chairman of the meeting. 

12. Gen. Lee saw the field wet with the blood of 
his faithful heroes. 



Eastman's Practical Grammar 229 



13. They expect a man to do every thing. 

14. Jones wanted his boy to be a lawyer. 

15. 0, me! my brother will come tomorrow! 

16. I have forght the good fight. 

17. The mule kicked himself loose from the plow. 

18. He jumped his horse over the ditch. 

19. To be honest is to be happy. 

20. Have you found a man to chop the wood? 

21. He went to Washington City to obtain a copy- 
right. 

22. My daughter is to have company to-night. 

23. She ordered the tramp to leave the house. 
24" It is wrong to annoy a neighbor. 

25. To die! To sleep! Perchance to dream! Ay! 
there's the rub. 

26. Her singing was better than her playing. 

27. The question with Hamlet was, "Whether it 
was nobler in the mind to suffer the slings and arrows 
of outrageous fortune, or to take up arms against a sea 
of troubles and, by opposing,. end them." 

S3. And darest thou then 

To beard the lion in his den, 
The Douglas in his hall? 
And hoposc thou hence unscathed to go'' 
N 1 By Saint Bride of Bothwel. no! 
Up drawbridg », grooms! vVhat, warder, ho! 
Let the portcallis fall \— Scott. 

89. Then came wandering by 

A shadow, like an angel with bright tiair 
Dabbled in blood, and shrieked out aloud: 
" Clarence is come! fa'se. fleeting, perjured Clarence! 
That s abbed me in the fluid by Tewksberry: 
Seize on him, f uries, take him to your torments!— Shakespeare. 

JJO. The breezy call of incense-breathing morn. 

The swalltw twitfering from the straw-built shad, 
The cock's shrill clarion «r the ech in* horn, 

No more shall rouso them from their lowly bod.— Gray. 



230 Eastman's Practical Grammar 



:tl . Forth from his park and lonely hHing place, 
( Portentous sight ! ) the owlet atheism 
Sailing on obscure wings athwart the moon. 
Drops his b'ue- fringed lid? . and ho'ds them close. 
ADd hooting at tbe x'.oriou-i sun in heaven. 
Cries out. "Where is it?"— Coleridge. 

o,'i. How dear to my heart are th3 scene3 of my chi'dhood. 
When fond recollection presents them to view; 
The orchard, the meadow, the do-'p-tangled wildwood. 

And every loved spot that ray infancy knew.— Wordsworth. 

-< lf-love, the spring of actioi moves the soul; 
Reason's comparing balance rules the world.— Pope. 

84. At the foot of Pompey 's Btatue whicn all th.-> ti n«> 
Ran blood, groat Cae-tar fell ! O, what a f ill 
Wai there, my countrymen; then you and I 
And all of us fell down, while hi >ody treason 

Triumphed OTer us!— Shaketpea re. 

86. Can Htori^il urn or animated bn«t 

Back to it« mansion c*U the fl >.-tiQ< breath? 
(' in Hon • -i nt dtnt. 

Or 1" | fctw doll '1 1 -vir of il ath?- Gray. 

'i 1 1 - bat tii" left 

A record in tbe deeert-oolamns strew i 
Onthewael itataee fallen mdc'eft. 

Heaped like a host in battle orertbrn 
Vast ruin-<, whero the mounuin's nl>- ' 
Were hewn that spread 

III the dark earih. When DOT IT Die itu w:is blown, 

Of bi i ir. ear foot of m m 

Th»- lon^ bm 1 iieriloiis w.»ys— th<- <il— Bryant. 



PART IV 



1. Use and Misuse. 

NOUNS. 
Consult the dictionaries when necessary. 

House, Home. 

A house is a building; a home is an abiding plaes. 
There may be a house with all its surroundings or there 
may be no house at all; as, The home of Washington^ 
The home of the soul. 

Insert the proper word, giving a reason: 

1. A wandering minstrel came to our 

2. Jones is building a new in the suburbs of 

town. 

3. He took his bride to their new • • . in Texas. 

4. Mr. Smith owns a beaatif ul and has a happy 

5. He borrowed money to build his • • • • and beautify 
his — . 

Person, Party. 

A person is an individual human being. A jjarty & 
a collection of persons, or one interested in an agree- 
ment, or a suit at court. 

1. There is a — coming on the train. 

2. Who is a — to this agreement? 

3. I told the that was talking to hush. 

4. A certain — told me of the scandal. 

6. I know he is a — to the suit, but I do not 
know whether plaintiff or defendant. 

Reception, Party, Entertainment. 

1. On the — of the foreign minister the president 
gave one of his magnificent . 



232 Eastman's Practical Grammar 



2. The whole — came on the train to attend the 



3. A wedding arrived in carriages. 

4. The given in honor of Miss Smith was 

elegant. 

Belief, Doctrine. 

Belief is a confidence in any thing as a truth or a 
fact; Doctrine is something taught to be believed. 

1. The of the Sadducees was opposed to that of 

the Pharisees in regard to the in the resurrection. 

2. The Mormons claim a in their . 

3. The of the different sects requires a in 

them upon the part of the members. 

Faith, Trust. 

Faith is based on evidence; trust on confidence. 

1. I have- in God and Him for His promises. 

2. Place your in God. 

::. Without no one can please God. 

Series, Succession. 

1. A series denotes several related things follow- 
ing each other in succession. A succession denotes 
l 1 b coming one after another. 

1. Ho preached a of sermons on different sub- 
jects. 

2. He delivered a of lectures on sound. 

3. The book contains a of stories all tending to 

illustrate his views. 

4. A- •■■of sounds executed upon a snare-drum, 
with great rapidity, is called "roll." 

Statement, Assertion. 

A statement is a formal setting forth of factor opin- 
ion; an assertion is an informal declaration. 



Eastman* s Practical Grammar 233 

1. I received a — of my account today. 

2. Your certified of court cost is at hand. 

3. That is only his • • • . ; it may be true or untrue. 

4. Mere — unsupported by evidence, is worthless. 

All, The Whole. 

The whole means entirely; All has more direct ref- 
erence to individual things. 

1. • • • .of the planks were blown away. 

2. The town was destroyed by the earthquake. 

3. The army lay down for the bullets to pass 

over. 

Act, Actions. 

Acts implies things done; Actions implies the pro- 
cess of doing. 

1. A friend is known by his . 

2. That was a cowardly . 

3. He is ungraceful in all his . 

4. speak louder than words. 

Acceptance. Acceptation. 

Acceptance is a species of commercial paper, the 
act of accepting, and favorable reception; Acceptation 
is a sense in which an expression is understood. 

1. The general of the term precludes such an 

interpretation. 

2. The maxim, "Honesty is the best policy," is 
worthy of . 

3. I am in receipt of your of the 30th instant. 

4. He notified the committee of his • • • • of the nom- 
ination. 

Delus-ion, Illusion. 

Delusion is deception from want of knowledge; 
Illusion is deception from morbid imagination. Delusion 
has reference to reason, illusion to the senses. 



234 Eastman's Practical Grammar 



1. The exhibition of the mermaid was an optical 

2. The whole scheme was a to lead us into 

ambush. 

3. "This world is alia fleeting show, for man's 

given." 

4. Good women are often led into by artful 

and designing men. 

Avocation, Vocation. 

Vocation means one's business or profession; 
Avocation means the smaller affairs that take one away 
from hi-; vocation. 

1. Let base-ball be your ; not your . 

2. The profession of law is an honorable . 

3. His- • • -is blacksmithing. but he practices horse 
doctoring as an • • • . 

Imnrjr, Lik' 

An imige is a likeness in form and outline; a 
likeness is a similarity either in form an 1 outline, or in 
other respects. Condition of being like. 

1. His head had the • ■ ■ -of a crown on. 

2. God made man in his own and after his 

own 

3. He came in the of a friend. 

4. God forbids us to worship any 

Ability, Capacity. 

Ability means the power of doing; Capacity, the 
power of containing. 

1. Your son does not learn because he lacks- • • • . 

2. The human mind has not the • ■ to remember 
all dates. 

3. He has the • • • to become great. 



Eastman's Practical Grammar 235 



Character, Reputation. 

Character has reference to what we are; Reputation 
is what we are said to be. 

1. A good .... is better than a good — . 

2. You may damage his but you cannot injure 

his . 

3. I believe him honesc, but what is his •-,• for 
honesty? 

These are only a few of the many nouns that may 
be misused, because of the resemblance in form or 
meaning, but we think them sufficient for this work. 
If the teacher desires further practice for his pupils, 
he may have them to look up other words. 

VERBS. 

You have had an exercise on nouns, in the selection 
of which it is easy to err. You will now take an exercise 
in verbs. Insert the proper ivord, giving reasons: 

Accredit, Credit. 

Accredit means to invest with credit or authority; 
Credit means to believe. 

1. Mr. Lowel was ed as minister plenipoten- 
tiary to England. 

2. This proof will his opinion. 

3. We should not every evil report. 

4. This news • • • • my former assertion. 

Calculate, Intend. 

Calculate means to compute; Intend declares pur- 
pose. 

1 . I — to visit you Christmas. 

2. I — the cost before I venture. 

3. Let us — the expense of our trip. 

4. I did not — to do that. 



236 Eastman's Practical Grammar 



Carry, Bring, Fit oh. 

Carry means to bear in going; Bring means to 
bear towards or to one; Fetch means to go, get and 
bring. 

. 1. me back to old Virginia. 

2. -..-alight. 

3. — a chair for the gentleman, there is one in 
the next room. 

4. Sunshine gladness to the heart. 

5. a bucket of water from the spring 

6. I am afraid you can not that great load. 

(Never say carry a girl to church, or a horse to 

water). 

Claim, Assert Allege, Stat, Declare. Affirm, Maintain. 

Clai r right; Assert 

lege means to declare 
without pi on one's honor; 

Maintain i. I and prove. These words are 

often erroneously used interchanges 

1. He 

2. Do you solemnly swear or that this is cor- 
rect? 

ile the ho , for business. 

... -ed in court, ail the facts relative to 
the matter. 

5. He ed his in* of his ac- 

cuse i 

('». A verb s action, being, or state. 

7. I the right to the floor. 

ess 

Admit a fact or truth; Confesi a crime or error. 

1. I that I was angry. 

2. I all that you say is true. 



Eastman's Practical Grammar 237 



3. The prisoner will his guilt. 

4. The court would not my testimony. 

Expect, Suspect. 

Expect, to look forward to a future event; Suspect, 
to suspicion; to imagine to exist; to mistrust; generally 
used regarding something hurtful. 

1. I he is trying to injure me. 

2. I to meet my friends. 

3. Dr. J. the presence of foreign matter in 

the blood. 

Think, Guess, Suppose. 

Think means to exercise thought; Guess means to 
conjecture; Suppose means to imagine with a view to a 
consequence. 

1. I am due an apology. 

2. I she used the old method. Did you or not? 

3. for argument's sake that I dii. 

4. how many nuts I hold in my hand. 

5. I • • • six. 

Learn, Teach. 

Learn, to acquire knowledge; Teach, to impart 
knowledge. 

1. I grammar and arithmetic, and the students 

• • • -very well. 

2. " to do by doing" is an old maxim. 

3. She will how to by teaching. 

4. I am teaching the child to read and so well 

that I myself by teaching to spell. 

Like, .Love. 

We like what pertains to the appetite or taste; we 
love what appeals to our affection. 
1. I- •• peaches and cream. 



238 Eastman's Practical Grammar 



2. Which do you • • • the more your father or your 
mother? 

3. You say you can not me; why? 

4. Do you Bvron or Milton mure? 

Stop, Stay. 

Stop means to cease going; Stay m -ins to rem tin 
Or abide. 

1. Where are you — ing? 

2. I am — ing at the hotel. 

3. Why did you- ••? 

4. I ed because I could go no farther 

1. [co l1 1 i > ic ;re li w lat he said. 

2. I calculat » to tr 
::. Carry th 

4. i ■ " ! > cl ■ 

;>. ; ; ! him d wn al 

,; | it ivi; :. iy at all. 

7 | m v ^ .Ul sold. 

8. it was s> - and 
i' allovi 

9, I), »u Jlaim that animiU hava sduU? Yes; I 
rat itain i b i ill ani nals h i> 

10. Halli • a imits th i >rk i i diffi: lit, but 

says th it she me \ i * it. 

' u ..ii" in i IsDna ■• than I 

thought. 

12 | ,: •' ik v 

l8 I 9U . , v , || i ;, . i. .. ,1 , u • that to the 

church. 

14. i expect lu> is slandering me. 
16. I suspect they are happy now. 



Eastman's Practical Grammar 239 

16. You can not think how I evaded him. 

17. I suppose you may go then. 

18. I will learn you your tables. 

19. I love cabbage, but they disagree with me. 

20. Where are you stopping? 

ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS. 

Insert the proper word jiving reasons: 

Apt, Likily, Liable. 

Apt implies a natural tendency; Likely implies 
probability, and Liable implies an unpleasant probabil- 
ity or obligation. 

1. He is an — scholar and — to succeed. 

2. Bad associations are • • • • to corrupt good man- 
ners. 

3. We were — to be stopped at any moment. 

4. You are — to have to pay for that. 

5. She is very in music. 

Quite, Very. 

Quite means entirely; Very means to a considera- 
ble extent. 

1. It is- •• -cool this morning. 

2. My friend and his new wife are • • • • happy. 

3. The snow has- •• -covered the ground. 

4. He is sick but not dead. 

Average, Ordinary . 

Average is an arithmetical term to denote a mean; 
Ordinary means of common occurrence, usual. 

1. An- • • -thinker could never solve it. 

2. He is a man of — intellect. 

3. The — temperature of the place is 72 F. 

4. My — daily expenses were $2.50. 



240 Eastman 's Practical Grammar 

Bound, Determined. 

Bound means obliged or obligated; Determined 
means personal determination. 

1. I am • • • • to conquer that habit. 

2. I am — to go; my word is out. 

3. George was • • • • to win the medal. 

4. They were — by a solemn oath. 

Fum\y, Odd. Strange. 

Funny means comical; Odd means unusual; Strange 
implies that with which we are unfamiliar. 

1. It is - • the power that changes the potato into 
blood, bone, fiber, etc. 

2. It was- -to see that negro mimic an ape. 

3. It was that he should fail to know me. 

1. His behavior was very- • 

ll.nlthy. Healthful. Wholesome. 

One is healthy that is in good health; that is health- 
ful which produces health or is healthgiving; Whole- 
some means about the same as healthful, but generally 
applies to food, etc. 

1. That is a very- • climate; the people all look 

2. That is a very - - ■ diet. 

3. You gave him very advice. 

1. It is like the complexion of a child. 

liar, I. nHlicvll. Dilliiirntly. 

Hani applies to substance, also to fate or lot; 
Difficult is the opposite <>f easy; DUligently means with 
dilligence. 

1. This is a- • • lesson, but I will study- - - ■ 

2. He tried -for the mastery. 

3. His lot was a one, but he labored 

•1. That is a • • • ■ question and • • • • to answer. 



Eastman's Practical Grammar 241 

Mad, Angry. 

Mad means insane; Angry means filled with wrath. 

1. The bull fought, but against such odds. 

2. The man would be — who would attempt it. 

3. I thought you were • • • . about it. 

4. Now, do not be — for it is my best. 

5. "Don't b« mother, mother, 

Don't be with your hoy. ' ' 

Scared, Afraid, 

Scared is a participle from scare; Afraid may be 
followed by of or that, but the word scared may 
not. 

1. I am — of that dog. 

2. It — ed me yesterday. 

3. I am not — of you, although you — ed my 
brother. 

4. I am that it will rain. 

5. The poor man was senseless. 

Excellent, Splendid. 

Excellent means very, very good ; Splendid has 
reference to a display of splendor. 

1. This is an lesson and now you may view the 

array of chariots and richly caparisoned horses. 

2. Caesar's triumphal processions were 

• 3. That is an stove. 

4. You delivered an oration. 

Very, Mighty, Awful. 

Very has been defined ; Mighty, possessed of great 
power ; Awful, dreadful, awe-inspiring. 

1. It was an — sight; blood flowed in rivers. 

2. A cyclone is in appearance and in its 

power. 



242 Eastman's Practical Grammar 

3. That is a — pretty hat. 

4. He is- •• -nice in his manners. 

Correct the errors and give your reasons : 

1. You are apt to be mistaken. 

2. Jones i , liable to receive a fortune. 

3. Yo i are likelv to pay the cost. 

4. It is quite pleasant to-day. 

5. My friend has quiet a nice home. 

6. An average man can pick tnree hundred pounds 
of cotton each day. 

7. I am bound and determined to win the prize. 

8. It is mighty funny that he should try to kill 
his wife. 

9. He is a very heathf ul man and lives in a healthy 
climate, and eats the healthiest food. 

10. The lesson is hard but you must study hard. 

11. You got mad. then I got mad. 

12. lam scared that you don't mean what you say. 
1 '.. I am scared of that horse. 

14. I am mighty glad you have such an awful 
nice dress. 

15. She is a dreadful pretty girl but she is mighty 
weak. 



CONTRACTIONS. 

Compound sentences may be contracted by using 
the common parts but once and connecting the parts 
not common, with the proper members; as, He is a 
lartreman and he is a portly man, He is a large portly 
man; John came and James came, John and James 
came. Thus a compound sentence may be contracted 
into a simple or a partly compound sentence. 



Eastman's Practical Grammar 243 

A complex sentence may be contracted into a simple 
sentence, if its subordinate clauses are subjects or ob- 
jects, by contracting the clauses into phrases; as, That 
one should steal is wrong=To steal is wrong; I expect 
that I shall see him=I expect to see him. 

If the clause is adjective it may be contracted into 
a phrase or even a word; as, I want a man who is in- 
dustrious; I want a man of industry; I want an indus- 
trious man. 

Simple sentences may be contracted by, 

(a) Omitting the subject; as, Strike=Strike thou» 
or ye, or Strike you, or You strike. 

(b) By omitting the predicate; as, Who is there? 
[ (am). 

(c) By omitting both subject and predicate; as, 
Fire!=There is a fire; Away!=Go away or You go away! 

There are many ways of contracting sentences and 
as many ways in which errors may occur. 

In contracting we may remove too many words, There 
is a red flag and there is a black flag. Contracted, There 
is a red and black flag. Observe that the two senten- 
ces do not mean the same; the first means there are 
two flags, a red one and a black one; while the second 
means there is one flag which is red and black. 

Clauses may be contracted into ; phrases that have 
not the exact meaning. . 

Likewise phrases may be contracted into words 
that have not the exact meaning. 

But the most common errors in contractions occur 
in contracting words; and we will illustrate by exercise. 
Most of these that are not absolutely incorrect, are ad- 
missible only in conversation or in poetry. 



244 Eastman's Practical Grammar 

INADMISSIBLE CONTRACTIONS. 

Ain't for Is not, Are not, Am not. 

Correct the errors giving reasons: 

1. That ain't what I said. 

2. You ain't rroing home, are you? 

3. I ain't as old as she is by two years. 

Wan't f i Was not, Were not. 

1. You wan't in town Monday. 

2. They wan't as angry as they looked. 

3. Wan't he in a hurry to marry. 

Won't for Will not. 

1. Large circuses won't come to this town. 

2. We won't go home till morning. 

3. Won't you come with me to the garden? 

Hain't for Have not, or Hat not. 

1. Hain't you told your mother yet? 

2. You hain't been to sleep these three hours. 

3. Johnie hain't said his prayers. 

The following may be used in ordinary conversa- 
tion, and writing representing such conversations, but 
they are inelegant contractions. 

ADMISSIBLE CONTRACTIONS. 

Am I tot Are mot, Wrrn't. for Were not, lint for I* not. Wasn't for Wmi 
not, Don't for Do not. (plural)* Domnt for Does not, (singular), Haven't for 
Havtnot, (plural). Hasn't for Hut no!, (singular), Ca n't for Can not. Didn't 

for Pid not. 

Insert the word that may be used in conversation: 

1. you going? 

2. you there yesterday? 

3. He a friend now. 

4. you care if he goes? 



Eastman's Practical Grammar 245 

5. John need new shoes? 

6. I a better suit than this. 

7. He forgotten it. 

8. I remember it. 

9. Jane, leave that there. 

(There are others that may be used with equal 
propriety. ) 

2. Figures. 

ADMISSIBLE IN WRITING. 

There are other contractions still better than the 
preceding examples, which are used in poetry by a 
figure of etymology called syneresis. By this figure two 
syllables are contracted into one; as, e'er for ever; 'tis 
for it is; seest for see-est. 

By another figure of etymology apocope, the last 
letter or letters of a syllable is omitted; as, th' for the; 
tho' for thought. 

By another figure a letter or letters may be omitted 
from the middle of a word; as, slumb'ring. 

FIGURES IN LANGUAGE. 

By Figurative Language is meant any deviation 
from the ordinary modes of expression, generally for 
the purpose of beautifying or strengthening the lan- 
guage. 

A Figure of Etymology is the deviation from the 
ordinary form of a word. 

A Figure of Syntax is a deviation from the ordi- 
nary construction of a word. 

A Figure of Rhetoric is a deviation from the or 
dinary sense of a word. 



246 Eastman's Practical Grammar 

FIGURES OF ETYMOLOGY. 

Apheresis consists in the elision of a letter or let- 
ters from the beginning of a word; as, 'round tor around 
'gainst for against, etc. 

Syncope is the omission of a letter or letters from 
the middle of a word; as, ne'er for never. 

Apocope is the omission of the last letter or letters 
of a word; as, th* for the; tho' for though, etc. 

Prosthesis consists of prefixing a letter or let- 
ters to a word; as, adown for down; agoing for going. 

Tmesis consists in separating a compound word by 
inserting a word between its parts; as, God's love to us 
ward', How much so* 

Paragoge is the addition of a letter or letters to 
the end of a word; as, bounden for bound. 

Svneresis is the contraction of two words or sylla- 
bles into one; as, 'tis for it is. 

DLERESIS is the separation of t ■ > contiguous vowel 
letters, to prevent them from forming a diphthong. It 
is indicated by two dots over the latter vowel; as, aerial 
\tic. 

figures of syntax. 

ELLIPSIS is the omission of a word, phrase orclause 
which is necessary to the construction. Such words, 
phrases, and clauses are said to be understood; as, 
Conn come thou; Help! I want help. 

Pleonasm consists in using unnecessary words; as, 
I feel it with this heart of mine; John, he was a piper's 
son. 

Ploysyndeton is the superfluous use of the con- 
junction; as, I came and I saw a)id I conquered. 



Eastman's Practical Grammar 247 

Asyndeton is the omission of connectives; as, I 
came, I saw, I conquered. 

Anadiplosis is the use of a word at the beginning 
of a sentence, that closes the sentence next preceding; 
as, You shall have protection; Protection such as the 
snake gives his victim. 

Anaphora is the repetition of the same word at the 
beginning of successive clauses; as, 

' 'Strike till the last armed foe expires; 
Strike for your altars and your fires ; 
Strike for the green gra Yes of your sires , 
God and your native land. ' ' 

Epizeuxis the emphatic repetition of a word; as, 
Onward! Onward! Onward! And forever. 

Enallage is the use of one part of speech for 
another, or of one modification for another; as, Bright 
the lamps shone o'er fair women and brave men. 

Syllepsis is the agreement of one word in its lit- 
eral sense with another in its figurative sense; as, The 
Word was made flesh and we beheld his glory . 

FIGURES OF RHETORIC. 

Simile is a formal comparison introduced by like, 
as, etc. 

"The Assyrian came down like a wolf on the fold. 11 

' ' They come as fleet as mountain deer, 
We'll drive them back as tame. ' ' 

A Metaphor is the application of the name, action 
or attribute of a thing to something else, on account of 
a fancied resemblance; as, He is the lion of the town; 
She is a little rosebud. 

An Allegory is a fictitious story told to illustrate 
or teach a lesson. It is common in the allegory for 



248 Eastman's Practical Grammar 

animals, inanimate objects, passions, emotions, etc., to 
figure as persons. 

Example: The Pilgrim's Progress; The Vision of 
Mirza. 

Fables and parables belong to the allegory, the 
difference between these being that parables are true 
to nature, even though fictitious in fact; fables are 
wholly fictitious. 

Example: jEsop's Fables; The parables of the 
Bible. 

Personification consists in attributing life and in- 
telligence to inanimate beings, or human attributes to 
animals; as, Freedom shrieked as Cosiusco fell; The 
monkev said to the cats, etc. 

METONOMY consists in giving the name of one thing 
to another, not on account of resemblance, but on ac- 
count of relation; thus, The cause for the effect, or The 
effect for the cause', A place for its inhabitants; Thesign 
for the thing signified, etc., as, The sword is mighty, 
but the pen is mightier; He wore the crown forty 
years. 

THE Svnechdoche is a kind of metonomy in which 
the name of a part is put for the wliole, or the whole 
for the part, or the container for the thing coyitained; 
as, I see a sail, f«r I seeaship; He likes the bottle, for 
He likes the contents of the bottle. 

Atonomasia is the use of a proper name for a com- 
mon name; or the name of some office, rank, or profes- 
sion for the true name of a class; as, The Umpire State; 
Many a Washington i3 in school to-day. 

Euphemism is the substitution of a delicate word 
for one more harsh; a*. Fallen asleep for dead; He is in 



Eastman's Practical Grammar 249 

embarrassed circumstances, for he is in debt; Prevaricate 
for lie. 

Antithesis consists in placing expressions in con- 
trast with each other; as, A confessed Catholic, he im- 
prisoned the Pope; The good shall live forever, but the 
wicked shall be destroyed. 

Hyperbole is an exaggeration of the meaning in- 
tended to be conveyed; as, He has shed rivers of tears; 
He flew like lightning to the spot. 

Irony is the saying of the opposite of what is meant 
for the purpose of ridiculing; as, You are an industrious 
boy; You haven't known your lesson for a week; You 
are a pretty thing with your face all out of shape like 
that. 

Interrogation is asking a question not to be an- 
swered but to make an affirmation; as, Can the Ethiopian 
change his skin? 

Apostrophe is the abrupt turning away from ordi- 
nary discourse to make a direct address; as, 

There is a pleasure in the pathless woods, 
There is a rapture by the lonely shore, 
There is society where none intrudes, 
By the deep sea, and music in its roar; 
I love not Qod the less, but nature more, 

For these, my solitary wanderings. 

Roll on, thou deep and dark blue ocean roll! 

Ten thousand fleets sw*ep over thee in vain, etc. 

(The last two lines form the apostrophe in the ex- 
ample). 

Vision is the narration of something past, or future 
as present. 

Example: Caesar crosses the Rubicon and carries 
victory before him. 



250 Eastman's Practical Grammar 

' ' For a field of the dead rushes red on my sight. 
And the clans of Culloden are scattered in flight." 

(The second example is predicting the future.) 

Climax is a series of expressions increasing in force 
of meaning from first to last; as, Days, months, years 
and ages shall circle away. 

Exclamation is the expression of some strong 
emotion of the mind; as, Joy! Joy!; Oh, what a fall was 
there my countrymen! 

Paralipsis is the pretended omission of something 
which one is really telling; as, I say nothing of his 
cruelty to his family, and nocturnal orgies in which he 
most constantly indulges. 

Paronomasia or Pun is a play upon the different 
meanings of a word; as. This pepper is half peas (p-e-p- 
p-e-r). 

There are very many ways in which errors may oc- 
cur in the use of figures of speech, but it Is not the 
object of this work to deal with them. It is left to 
works on composition and rhetoric to trout more min- 
utely of this feature of the language. Some authors 
give fewer figures than are explained herein, and 
others give a greater number; but these will, perhaps, 
give the pupil a fair idea of figurative language. 



KkVIKW QUESTIONS 1. 

1. How is correct usage determined in language? 2. 
What is meant by present usage? ''. By national 
usage? 4. By reputable usajre? 5. Do the writers of 
grammars or the authors of dictionaries make usage or 
merely record it? 6. Is it possible for both to err? 7. 
How? 8. What is common usage? Is it a standard 



Eastman's Practical Grammar 251 

of correctness? 9. How may common usage, though 
incorrect, finally become good usage? 10. What 
errors are to be avoided besides those of etymological 
and syntactical relations? 11. How may a language 
become corrupted, especially in its pronunciation? 12. 
How may a compound sentence be contracted? 13. 
Give an example. 14. How may a complex sentence 
be contracted? 15. Give an example. 16. How may 
a simple sentence be contracted? 17. Give an exam- 
ple. 18. In what ways may errors occur in contrac- 
tion? 19. Give examples. 20. Are all contractions 
of words inadmissible? 21. Name some that are. 22. 
Name some contractions that are not admissible in dig- 
nified writing, but may be used in ordinary conversa- 
tion. 23. Name some contractions which as figures of 
etymology may be used in poetry. 24. What are fig- 
ures? 25. What are figures of etymology? 26. Name 
and define each. 27. What are figures of rhetoric? 
28. Name and define each and illustrate each with an 
example. 



3. Capital Letters. 

THE USE OF CAPITAL LETTERS. 

There are many different kinds of letters in use, 
but those with which the ordinary writer has to deal 
most are CAPITALS, small capitals, the ordinary 
small letters and, italics. 

In manuscripts intended for publication, the writer 
should draw three lines under the words he intends 
shall be printed in CAPITALS, those intended to be 



252 Eastman's Practical Grammar 

printed in small capitals should have two lines under 
them ;and those to be in italics should have one line 
under them. 

The first letter of a word must be a capital letter 
under the direction of the following 

RULES. 

Rule I. Begin every proper name with a capital 
letter; as, Martin Van Buren; Austin, Texas. 

Remark 1. Compound proper names begin each 
word with a capital letter; as, The Mississippi River. 

Remark 2. In the titles of books and headings of 
chapters, every important word must begin with a cap- 
ital letter. 

RULE II. Every proper adjective mutt begin with a 
Capital letter', as, The Austrian phalanx. 

RULE III. All appellations qt the Deity, and all 
pronoun* and adjectives referring to his name, should bc- 
gin with capital Utters; as. Eternal One, Jehova, The 
Word. etc. 

Remark 1. Heaven, when it means the abode of 
the blessed, is sometimes capitalized,- but not always. 

Rule IV. The first a-ord of every new sentence 
must begin with a capital Utter; as, The quality of 
mercy is not strained. 

Rule V. Capitalize ■■ >ord cf every line o 

poetry; as, 

"Backward, Bow backward, obi ti'leof years, 
I have grown vr.'ury "f toil and of tsars, 
Voll without recompense, tears all in rain; 

Take tbem auil nire me my ebildttOOd -'tfuui ' 

RULE VI. Capitalize all titles of office, honor or 
distinction; as. Ihm. V. W. Grubbs; Dr. Dunbar. 



Eastman's Practical Grammar 253 

. , . i 

Remark. If the title is used without reference to- 
the individual person, it is a common noun and should 
not be capitalized; as, Send for a doctor. 

Rule VII. Capitalize the words north, south, 
east and west and their compounds when they refer to 
the people of such districts; as, The North and the 
South engaged in bloody war. 

Remark. The names of the points of the compass 
begin with small letters when they do not refer to the 
people of the countries thus referred to. 

Rule VIII. Capitalize the names of all religious 
denominations, creeds, or sects; as, Methodist, Catho- 
lic, etc. 

Rule IX. Capitalize common nouns when vividly 
personified; as, Come, 0, Spring with your lap full of 
flowers. 

Rule X. The names of the days of the week and 
the months, but not the seasons, must be capitalized. 

Rule XI. Capitalize the first word of a direct quo- 
tation; as, The old man said with great solemnity, 
"The almond tree is flourishing." 

Remark. The quotation should form an entire 
sentence and not be connected with what precedes by 
that, if, or any other conjunction. 

Rule XII. The words I and must be written 
with capitals; as, 0, me! I am ruined. 

Rule XIII. Capitalize the names of well known 
historical events or eras, remarkable physical phe- 
nomena, etc.; as, The French Revolution; Aurora 
Borealis. 



254 Eastman's Practical Grammar 

Capitalize the following, giving reasons: 

1 . the bark that h«ld the prince went down ; 
the sweeping waves rolled on; 
and what wasenglana's glorious cr >wu 
to him that wept a son? 

2. the catholic church of the north is identic il 
with the catholic church of the south, it is not so wi:h 
the methodists; yet all worship the same god and seek 
his divine blessings Sundays and week-days, in June or 
december. 

3. o. me! i am tired! i know now how gen. Lee 
felt. 

4. an indian wigwam was seen in the distance. 

5. burns said, "a man's a man for a' that." 

6. the dark ages were followed by the revival 
of learning. 

7. act well your part, there all the honor lies. 

8. the cabbots discovered the main land of north 
america. 

'J. an emp Tor after all, is but a man. 

10. where are those powerf il trio is thatonce lived 
east of the mississippi river? 

11. peace, thy olive wand extend and bid wild war 
his ravage end. 

12. those who trust in providence, he will not 
desert. 

1".. the wars of the roses lasted from 1155 to 
1485. 



Eastman's Practical Grammar 255 

4. Punctuation. 

Punctuation is the use of certain characters, other 
than letters or figures, to aid in developing the thought 
of the writer. 

Punctuation is of three lands : Referential, or that 
used to determine the sens ; Diacritical, or that used 
to aid in spelling or pronouncing ; and Rhetorical, or 
that used for reference. 

The points used in rhetorical punctuation are : 
The comma, (,) The exclamation, (!) 

The semi-colon, (;) The dash, ( — ) 

The colon, (:) Parenthesis, ( ) 

The period, (.) Brackets, [] 



The interrogation, (?) Brace, 



Hyphen, (-) Quotation marks, (" ") 

Apostrophe, (') 
We leave the diacritical marks to be taught in 
spelling books and dictionaries. 
The referential marks are : 
The asterisk, (*) The section, (§) 

The dagger, (t) The paragraph, (H) 

The double dagger, (t) The index, (jb®*) 
The parallels, (||) Small letters or figures. 

RULES FOR THE USE OF POINTS. 

THE COMMA. 

Rule I. Short parenthetical expressions should be 
set off by commas. 

Remark 1. The comma must be placed after the 
parenthetical expression if it comes at the beginning, 
before if it comes at the close, and on each side if it 
comes in the middle of a sentence. 



256 Eastman's Practical Grammar 

Examples : Unquestionably, he is a man of genius ;. 
He is a man of genius, unquestionably ; He is, unques- 
tionably, a man of genius. 

Remark 2. Any expression is parenthetical if it 
can be omitted without injury to the sense, whether it 
be at the beginning, the middle, or the end of the sen- 
tence- 

Rule II. Appositires should be set off from the 
word they /nullify, by commas; as, Caesar, the greatest 
man of Rome, was assassinated. 

Remark 1. Such appositives are parenthetical. 

Remark 2. If an appositive is not parenthetical 
the comma should not be used ; as, The river Nile flows 
northward. 

Rule III. Words, phr I clauses out of their 

hould /" set iff by commas, unless the 

connection ■ as not tomato* an interruption in 

the harmonious flow of tht sentence; as, To those who 

labor, sleep is indispensable. 

RULE IV. The complex subject must be separated 
from th> predicaU by a comma when the subject ends with 
a verb, or contains parts thai an separated by the 
comma . as, He who tries, succeeds ; A life of troubles, 
of cares, and of temptations, IS hardly \voi\h the living. 

Rule V. When a * ries of phrases or clauses that 
would bi the subject are followed by the words, These, 
All these, "/• Such. grammatical subjects, the 

vrated from each other by semi-colons, 
and t'i ■ vratedfrom the words, These, Such, 

etc., by a comma, followed by a dash. 

nple : To be scorned and neglected ; lo be the 
object of the contempt even of the unworthy; to be 
slandered, and even persecuted, by those who claim 



Eastman's Practical Grammar 257 

superiority because of position, — such is too often the 
fate of the unfortunate. 

Rule VI. Words and phrases, not exclamatory, but 
used independently, are set off by commas; as, May, 
how is your mother? His conduct on this occasion, 
how disgraceful it was ! The war being- over, the sol- 
diers returned to their homes. 

Rule VII. A comma must be placed between the 
members of a compound predicate, unless short and 
closely connected ; as, I have wandered in the pathless 
woods, have found a rapture by the lonely shore, and 
society where none intrudes, etc. 

Rule VIII. A comma is used where a verb or con- 
junction is omitted ; as, Days, months, years and ages ; 
Theory makes a visionary man, practice, a practical 
one. 

Remark 1. In a series of words and phrases in 
which the comma is used to denote the omission of a 
conjunction, the comma followed by the conjunction 
are both, placed between the last two ; as, Blue, green, 
yellow, red, orange, indigo, and violet, are the seven 
primitive colors. 

Rule IX. Words used in pairs take a comma after 
each pair ; as, The high and the low, the rich and the 
poor, the old and the young, were all mingled in a pro- 
miscuous mass. 

Rule X. Words repeated for emphasis, or as a 
kind of echo to the thought, are set off by commas ; as, 
Strike, strike, while the opportunity lasts ; Backward, 
flow backwaid. 

Remark 1. Sometimes the repetition is so abrupt, 
or proceeds from hesitation, or indicates such a break 



258 Eastman's Practical Grammar 

in the sentiment, as to require a dash ; as, The days of 
my youth have departed— departed never to return. 

R?mark 2. Sometimes the repetition is an excla- 
mation, and th?n it is followed by the exclamation 
point ; as, A horse ! a horse ! My kingdom for a horse ! 
Rule XL An infinitive denoting purpose is set off 
with all its s ibordinate elements, by the eomma; as, He 
went to the University of Texas, to complete his study 
of mathemati 

Rule XII. I >■ and passages resembling 

d by the comma : as. Then 
he said, "I am a Roman citizen." 

Remark. Parenthetical expressions often occur in 
the midst of a quotation : as, " 1 warrant ", quoth he, 
• hank of the well betim 
Rule XIII. Carry contrasted ex- 

as, Though 
, l iv brings its labors, 
night bring 

L.E XIV. i • ./ an example, 

d by a comma. 
See the examples to the preceding rules. 

Rule XV. ' vfu n a short pause is 

rendered proper by tl q and the sense is incom- 

TlIK SEMI-COLON. 

Rule I. ZVu //"• mem- 

bers when the conjunction is 

unless (>'■ close as to require 

• ; as, My troubles are greater than I can 
but if I do not bear them, nobody will bear them 
for me. 



Eastman's Practical Grammar 259 



Remark. It is often a matter of taste whether to 
use the semi-colon or the comma. It must be de- 
termined in such cases by the degree of separation in- 
dicated. 

Rule II. The semi-colon must be used between the 
great divisions of a sentence when the sub-divisions are 
separated by commas ; as, Good spelling is regarded as 
a thing to be expected, not an ornament ; and good 
penmanship, a thing not to be expected, though much 
desired. 

Rule III. In a series of clauses, the members are 
separated from each other by semi-colons ; as, Those who 
abstain from all the pleasures of life to make money ; 
those who, having made it dread to spend it ; those 
who, having spent it, find its loss a source of constant 
regret, can never be happy, here or hereafter. 

Rule IV. A formal enumeration of particulars, 
introduced by as follows, The following, This, These', 
etc., expressed or understood, takes a colon before the 
particulars, and the semi-colon between them ; as, Man 
is a three-fold being: he has his physical being ; he has 
an immortal soul ; he has an intellect that is God-like 
in its nature. 

Remark. If the particulars consist of single 
words, or are very short, use the semi-colon before, 
and commas between them. 

Rule V. As, viz. , etc. , used to introduce an exam- 
ple or enumeration of particulars, take the semi-colon 
before them, and the comma after them. For examples 
of as, see the examples given to the preceding rules. 
Viz used before an enumeration of particulars is punc- 
tuated just like as. 



260 Eastman's Practical Grammar 

THE COLON. 

Rule I. A colon must be placed between the great 
divisions of a sentence when the sub-divisions are sepa- 
rated by semi-colons ; as, 

"Be wise to-day: 'tia madness to defer: 
S-xt dav the fat .1 precedent will plead: 
Thus on. all wisd -m is probed ont of life." 

Rule II. A colon should be placed after Thus, Fol- 
lowing, As Follows, etc., expressed or understood, when 
they introduce examples, enumerations and quotations; 
as, Pope states a good maxim: "Know then thyself ; 
presume not God to scan. " 

Remark. In the application of this rule, if the ex- 
ample, enumeration, or quotation begins on the next 
line below, the colon and the dash are both used. 

Rule III. The colon is vised to set off an additional 
explanatory r< mark; as, Never say anything of a per- 
son, unless you can say something good: leave the evil 
for others to say. 

Rule IV. A formal address is toll, need by a colon 
and a dash; as. Ladies and Gentlemen: - 

Remark. This rule is often applied at the begin- 
ning of a letter. 

THE PERIOD. 

RULE I. Th< period must be placed after every de- 
clarative ami imperative sentence when detached, and tin 
is complete; as, I was in New York when I first 
heard the story; never in my life had I heard anything 
half so affecting. 

Rule II. A period must be placed after every ab- 
breviated word\ as, Gen. Washington; Boston, Mass. 



Eastman's Practical Grammar 261 

Remark. The mere shortening of a name must not 
be mistaken for an abbreviation; as, Ben Johnson, Joe 
Johnson; Tom Johnson. 

Rule III. A period is placed after Roman num- 
erals; as, I. V. XL, etc. 

INTERROGATION POINT. 

Rule I. An interrogation point must be placed 
after every direct question; as, Who will be there? 

Remark. The interrogation point should not be 
used unless the exact words of the question are given; 
as, They asked him if he would stay all night. 

Rule II. An interrogation point is used after an 
expression to throw doubt upon it; in such case the in- 
terrogation point is inclosed in parenthesis; as, I have 
examined his arguments (?) and am not afraid of them; 
His thoughtfulness (?) is a guaranty for what he says. 

THE EXCLAMATION POINT. 

Rule I. The exclamation point is placed after 
every exclamatory sentence or expression; as, How the 
wind blows! ah me! 

Remark. The exclamation point is used after oh 
but not after O. The latter expresses little emotion, 
and is generally used in connection with a noun or pro- 
noun. 

Rule II. More than one exclamation point may be 
used after the expression of an ordinary degree of emo- 
tion; also to express irony or sarcasm; as, That great 
and eminent scholar!! 



262 Eastman's Practical Grammar 



THE DASH. 

Rule I. The dash is used to denote a break in the 
construct ion, a suspension of the sense, an unexpected 
transition, an interruption or a hesitation; as, I would 
tell you but — ; He felt the keen edge of the knife, cast 
one glance toward heaven, as if to ask forgiveness be- 
fore he committed the deed, and lifting the gleaming 
blade began to trim his nails. 

Rule II. A dash man be used after other points 
to (hunt, a greater separation or pause than usual. 
For examples of its use after the period see the "re- 
marks'' under these rules. It is also used with the 
period in giving the name of the author of a quoted 
passage. For its use with the colon and comma, see 
Rule II. for the colon, and Rule V. for the comma. 

Rule III. The dash is used to inclose a parentheti- 
cal expression, too long for the comma, but too short for 
pan nth i 

PARENTHESES. 

Rule I. Parentheses an used to inclose additional 
thoughts when used in such a manner as to break the 
connection between tfu dependent parts, or to interfere 
with their harmonous flow; as, The tramp (for she did 

not know it was her father) was not invited to be 
seated. 

Remark Matter within the parentheses must be 
punctuated like any other matter, and the points which 
belong to the whole, are not supplanted by the marks 
of parenthesis 

Rule II. Obst rvations thrown in by a reporter arc 
s mi)' ti)i>< s im'irs<<l in parentheses, stum times in bracket; 



Eastman's Practical Grammar 263 



as, Let us stand by the stars and stripes in one grand 
united brotherhood! (prolonged cheers). 

Rule III. Letters and figures used to mark 
divisions, are inclosed in parentheses; as, (a) To be, (b) 
to do, and (c) to suffer the the consequences. 

BRACKETS. 

Rule I. Brackets are used for the most part to in- 
close corrections, suggestions and directions; as, Begin- 
[n]ing, for the correction of the spelling of begining; A 
man which [whom] I met; [Enter Hamlet soliloquis- 
ing] ' 'To be or not to be etc. ' ' 

BRACE. 

Rule I. A Brace is used to connect a number of 
words with a common term; as, 

^ Masculine, 
Gender, - Feminine, 
( Common. 

For further illustration of the use of the brace refer 
to outlines at the beginning of the different subjects in 
this grammar. 

QUOTATION MARKS. 

Rule I. Quotation marks are used to include a 
quotation when the exact words are used. 

Rule II. Single quotations are used to include a 
quotation included within a quotation. 

Example illustrating both rules: 

The preacher said, "1 never preach to the rich and 
mighty, but that I think of the passage, 'Lay not up for 
yourselves treasures upon earth', for I know that their 
treasures are 'of the earth earthy'." 



264 Eastmans Practical Grammar 

Rule III. When a quotation consists of several suc- 
cessive paragraphs, quotations marks precede each, but 
fellow none but the last. Thus, 

"Blessed are the poor in spirit; for theirs is the 
kingdom of heaven. 

"Blessed are they that mourn; for they shall be 
comforted. 

"Blessed are the meek; for they shall inherit the 
earth." 

THE HYPHEN. 

Rule I. The hyphen must be placed between the 
member* of a compound word when both parts are accent- 
ed; as, Laugter-loving; Ill-starred. 

RULn II. The hyphen is used to preserve the mean- 
ing of words spelled alike having different meanings; 8&, 
Reform and Re-Jorm, 

Rule III. A hyphen is used at the end of a line 
//•/" n i word is divided. 

apostrophi;. 

Rule I. Tin appostrophe is used to denote theomie- 
(i letter or U tU rs; as, in the possessive case and 
certain figures of etymology previously treated. 
Remarks on Rhetorical Punctuation'. 

Of the four principal points, the period marks the 
greatest separation, the colon next, the semi-colon next 
and the comma the least. 

When smaller divisions are separated by commas, 
the greater ones are separated by semi-colons; if thtre 
be still greater, they are separated by colons; and com- 
pletly detached parts by periods. 

Interrogation points and exclamation points some- 
times mark degrees of separation equal to that requir- 



Eastman's Practical Grammar 265 

ing the comma, sometimes the semi-colon, but most of- 
ten they are equvalent in degree to the period. 

The tendency of modern writers is towards fewer 
points and of less degree. 

The colon is used now much less than formerly. 

EXERCISE IN PUNCTUATION. 

1. Truth crushed to earth will rise again 
Tbe eternal years of God are hers. 

2. There are five senses seeing hearing feeling 
taste and smell 

3. The discourse consisted of two parts in the 
first he showed man in his fallen estate in the second 
man redeemed 

4. The evil that men do lives after them the good 
is often interred with their bones so let it be with 
Caesar. 

5. O what a fall was there my countrymen 

6. To be pampered and petted by society to be 
praised by flatterers to be favored by those in authority 
all these are often the good fortune of even the un- 
worthy. 

7. To be caught therefore was their greatest dread 

8. Mary the maid of the inn was unfortunate 

9. In the sunny South Dixie is the favorite piece 
of music 

10. In the land where the polar bear lives is to be 
seen the seal and the walrus 

11. The general being wounded we retreated 

12. Faith hope and charity are called Christian 
graces 

13. The mercury in the thermometer though it had 
not yet congealed was far below zero 



266 Eastman's Practical Grammar 

14. Thou tiny image if myself My dear hes poking 
peas into his ear 

15. I even I Artixerxes the king do make a decree 

16. Where is it where is it not 

Punctuate the following so as to express the truth 

17. Every lady in the land. 

lias twenty nails on each baud 
Five add twentv ou hands and f< el 
And this is true without fli 



SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS. 

This work is not designed as a composition, and yet 
proper punctuation is a matter of so much importance 
that we cannot afford to neglect it. 

An excellent plan to develop proficiency in the 
art, is for the teacher to take some modern, standard 
work, and dictate a lesson from it, which should be 
brought up neatly written with pen and ink. Such ex- 
ercise should be graded on punctuation, and such other 
points as the teacher may wish. 

REFERENCE MARKS. 

In referring to notes at the bottom of the page we 
use the following marks in order as they are named: 
Asterisk, dagger, double dagger, parallels, section/ 
paragraph, small letters, figures. 

The index 10 makes some special reference. 



Eastman's Practical Grammar 267 



5. Prosody. 



Prosody is that department of grammar that treats 
of the laws of versification. 

Versification is the art of making verses. 

A Verse is discourse written in metrical form. 

Prose is discourse written in ordinary form. 

Poetry is written in rhyme or in blank verse. 

Rhyme is a similarity of sound in two words caused 
by beginning unlike and ending alike. It generally 
occurs at the ends of the lines. 

Blank Verse is written in metrical form without 
rhyme. 

Perfect Rhyme requires 

(a) That the syllables be accented. 

(b) That the vowel sounds be the same. 

(c) That the sounds following the vowel be the 
same. 

(d) . That the sounds preceding the vowels be dif- 
ferent. 

Admissible Rhyme is rhyme in which the vowel in 
the last syllable is the same, but has a different sound; 
and the consonants that follow are the same. 

Inadmissible Rhyme is that in which the conson- 
ants following the rhyming vowel are unlike. 

Examples: 

Perfect Rhyme : Talk and walk; Toivn&nd crown. 

Imperfect Rhyme, or Admissible: Come and 
home. 

Inadmissible Rhyme: Aught and fault. 

A Distich or Couplet consists of two lines rhym- 
ing together; as, 

' 'Vice is a monster cf so frightful a mein, 
As, to be hated, needs but to be seen. 1 ' 



268 Eastman's Practical Grammar 

A Triplet consist of three lines rhyming to- 
gether; as, 

' 'Souls that can scarce ferment their mass of clay- 
So drossy, so divisableare they. 
As would hut serve pure bodies for alloy. ' ' 

A Hemistich or Middle Rhyme, rhymes every 
half line together; as, 

' ' We were the tirst that erer burst 
Into that silent sea." 

A Stanza is a group of lines or verses forming a 
division of a poem. 

poetic feet. 

A Poetic Foot is a collection of syllables grouped 
according to accent. 

Accent is a stress of voice on a certain syllable of 
a foot. 

The principal feet in English verse are: 

(a) Dissyllabic, or feet of two syllables, Iambus, 
trochee, spondee. 

(b) Trisyllabic, or feet of three syllables,— Ana- 
pest, dactyl, and amphibrac. 

Tin; Iambus consists of two syllables accented on 
the second. It is marked thus, — — 

THE Trochee consists of two syllables accented on 
the first, and is marked thus, — — 

The Spondee consists of two accented syllables 
and is marked thus, - — 

The ANAPEST consists of three syllables accented 
on the last. It is marked. - — 

The DACTYL consists of three syllables accented on 
the first. I is marked, — — - 



Eastman's Practical Grammar 269 

The Amphibrac consists of three syllables, ac- 
cented on the second or middle, marked. ^ — ^ 

The CLesura is an accented foot of one syllable 
sometimes used. 

EXAMPLES. 

IAMBIC verse: 
The truth itself is not believed. 

The truth I itself I is not I believed. | 

TROCHAIC VERSE: 

Ruin seize thee, ruthless king. 

Ruin | seize thee | ruthless \ king. | 
spondaic verse: 

Peace, peace | sweet peace. ! 

ANAPESTIC VERSE: 

All at once | and all o'er I with a might | y uproar. I 
dactylic verse: 

Take her up I ten der ly. j 

AMPHIBRACHIAL VERSE: 

The old oak | en buck et. | 

C^ESARURAL VERSE. 

Gold I gold | gold | gold! I 
A Monometer is a verse of one foot; as, 

! gold; ! tenderly. I 



270 Eastman's Practical Grammar 

A Dimeter is a verse of two feet; as, 

So young and so fair. 
A Trimeter is a verse of three feet. 

| A charge i to keep j I have. I 
A Tetrameter is a verse of four feet, 

The lark is up j to meet I the sun. I 
A Pentameter is a verso of five feet. 

Honor and shi di tion rise. I 

A II 

Down I beside the : I Iream. I 

A Heptamei 

Over I the Al ban moun tains high the light 

. 

A verse is i lacks a syllable at the 

end; acatalectic when it c ven;hypercatalectic, 

if it has a Byllable too many. 



MODELS FOK SCANNING. 

I beak, 
tling shriek, 
That nurses her bi i cliff flowers blow, 

« >U Hi 

m&umi Thia is a stanza, consisting of four 
▼erses. 



LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 



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